Saul, David, Solomon

Of Exuberant Imagination?
The Search for Saul, David and Solomon

by Rick Dack, Founder and Director of A.D. Communications.

"To many people it seems remarkable that David and Solomon still remain unknown outside the Old Testament or literary sources derived directly from it. No extra-Biblical inscription, either from Palestine or from a neighboring country, has yet been found to contain a reference to them." - Kathleen Kenyon, former Jericho and Jerusalem Excavator (Price 1997, 162)

"Similarly, the David of the Bible, David the King, is not a historical figure." - Neils Peter Lemche (Biblical Archaeology Review, July/August 1997, 40)

. .."of exuberant imagination." J.A. Montgomery, in The International Critical Commentary, labeled the passages 1 Kings 6:20-22, 30 and 2 Chronicles 3:4-7 as products of myth concerning the inside of Solomon's Temple as being pure gold. - (Bible and Spade, Autumn 1994, 97).

"Tom, I don't care in the least whether Solomon ever existed. I'm probably more of a disbeliever than you. I don't really care about the traditions. I don't believe any of the myths." -William Dever addressing Thomas Thompson. (Biblical Archaeology Review, July/August 1997, 33).

"I want to be sure you understand me about David and Solomon. For me, as an archaeologist, it's simple. I don't have to argue whether this Solomon existed. I do have to argue that somebody built these gates (at Gezer, Megiddo and Hazor) in a government that was highly centralized, and for me that means statehood. In other words its Solomon by another name. I don't care. I'm talking about centralization and the rise of the state. And I use the term Solomon as a kind of convenient short hand. And so therefore I would say a Solomon of sort existed but not necessarily the Solomon of fable." - William Dever, (Biblical Archaeology Review, July/August 1997, 40).

mmFor a number of years, the critics of the Bible have invaded our literature, television, and other forms of media. Unfortunately, many people of conviction, including students in Christian institutions, have fallen prey to perceived literature and films that must be pro-Bible just by the very nature of their publicized name. I have no problem with the concept of all ideas being expressed, but there must be an alternative to information for the student to consume that will compliment rather than offend and confuse the person of faith. Fortunately, there are publications such as Artifax magazine and Bible and Spade, but these young publications are not allowed into libraries because they do not fit all the standards necessary for indexing.
mmA perfect of example of this problem happened at Northwestern College in St. Paul, Minnesota, where a student denied the very existence of Jericho and its destruction. I was shocked at hearing this student rail against the biblical city that was destroyed after the Exodus. Even more unbelievable, is knowing that a year and a half prior to this, Dr. Bryant Wood spoke at Northwestern College where he supported the biblical city's historical and archaeological merits. The next logical question arises: Is the Bible of exuberant imagination (see title and quote above), or can it be trusted?
mmThis question has been exhausted by minimalist and maximalist scholars for years, and one cannot help but logically make the leap with the following set of circumstances. If the Exodus never happened, then Jericho must be a myth, and the Hebrews never escaped the bondage initially started by the Hyksos. If this scenario is true, then there is no basis for Judges and the beginning of the nation of Israel is pure fancy. Also, there is no need for Kings if you have no Kingdom. As will be seen, there is ample evidence for Kings Saul, David and Solomon, much to the dismay of critics who either choose not to believe, have not researched the evidence, or have pre-conceived ideas about early Israel.
mm

King Saul in Archaeology

Nahash the Ammonite

1 Nahash the Ammonite went up and besieged Jabesh Gilead. And all the men of Jabesh said to him, "Make a treaty with us, and we will be subject to you." - 1 Samuel 11:1 (http://bible.gospelcom.net/bible)

mmPrior to Saul's proclamation as King (at Gilgal) by his people, Nahash the Ammonite laid siege against Jabesh Gilead with his marauders. The people of Jabesh Gilead tried to make peace with Nahash (Serpent), he refused, Saul was contacted at Gibeah, and he eventually won the day by attacking the Ammonites with his three companies until the heat of the day (1 Samuel 11:11). This act not only assured Saul's place as Israel's first King but also showed his competency as a great military leader who could lead his people to victory (Life Application Bible, 1993, 462).
mm Jabesh Gilead (dry heap of stones) is located 19 miles southeast of Beth Shan and 12 miles north of the Jabbock River (Bible and Spade, Winter 1982, 13). When King Saul and his sons were slain by the Philistines and his body was placed at Beth Shan, it was the men of Jabesh-Gilead who gave them a proper burial.

Saul and the Witch of Endor

3 Now Samuel was dead, and all Israel had mourned for him and buried him in his own town of Ramah. Saul had expelled the mediums and spiritists from the land. 4 The Philistines assembled and came and set up camp at Shunem, while Saul gathered all the Israelites and set up camp at Gilboa. 5 When Saul saw the Philistine army, he was afraid; terror filled his heart. 6 He inquired of the Lord , but the Lord did not answer him by dreams or Urim or prophets. 7 Saul then said to his attendants, "Find me a woman who is a medium, so I may go and inquire of her." "There is one in Endor," they said. 8 So Saul disguised himself, putting on other clothes, and at night he and two men went to the woman. "Consult a spirit for me," he said, "and bring up for me the one I name." 9 But the woman said to him, "Surely you know what Saul has done. He has cut off the mediums and spiritists from the land. Why have you set a trap for my life to bring about my death?" 10 Saul swore to her by the Lord , "As surely as the Lord lives, you will not be punished for this." 11 Then the woman asked, "Whom shall I bring up for you?" "Bring up Samuel," he said. 12 When the woman saw Samuel, she cried out at the top of her voice and said to Saul, "Why have you deceived me? You are Saul!" 13 The king said to her, "Don't be afraid. What do you see?" The woman said, "I see a spirit [1] coming up out of the ground." 14 "What does he look like?" he asked. "An old man wearing a robe is coming up," she said. Then Saul knew it was Samuel, and he bowed down and prostrated himself with his face to the ground. - 1 Samuel 28:3-14 (http://bible.gospelcom.net/bible)

mmAfter a careful examination of the text, there are some interesting points that should be touched upon. 1 Samuel 28:11 speaks of the witch wanting to bring up the person who she is trying to contact. The Ob (pronounced "Ov") pit was more than likely what she was using. The pit was 6 feet wide, 6 feet deep, and was used for conjuring spirits. Offerings of blood, milk, and honey were dropped into the pit, and the conjurer would recite spells and incantations over the concoction in order to lure the spirits up out of the hole. The reason that a witch would use the pit was to ask questions of the deceased as seen in the Old Testament story in which Saul contacted the prophet Samuel. The description of the Ob pit is mentioned in Hittite literature, but there is no indication within the text that the Witch of Endor was a Hittite (Old Testament Archaeology video, Northwestern College, 2000).

The Death of Saul and the Philistines at Beth Shan

1 Now the Philistines fought against Israel; the Israelites fled before them, and many fell slain on Mount Gilboa. 2 The Philistines pressed hard after Saul and his sons, and they killed his sons Jonathan, Abinadab and Malki-Shua. 3 The fighting grew fierce around Saul, and when the archers overtook him, they wounded him. 4 Saul said to his armor-bearer, "Draw your sword and run me through, or these uncircumcised fellows will come and abuse me." But his armor-bearer was terrified and would not do it; so Saul took his own sword and fell on it. 5 When the armor-bearer saw that Saul was dead, he too fell on his sword and died. 6 So Saul and his three sons died, and all his house died together. 7 When all the Israelites in the valley saw that the army had fled and that Saul and his sons had died, they abandoned their towns and fled. And the Philistines came and occupied them. 8 The next day, when the Philistines came to strip the dead, they found Saul and his sons fallen on Mount Gilboa. 9 They stripped him and took his head and his armor, and sent messengers throughout the land of the Philistines to proclaim the news among their idols and their people. 10 They put his armor in the temple of their gods and hung up his head in the temple of Dagon - 1 Chronicles 10: 1-10 (http://bible.gospelcom.net/bible)

7 When the Israelites along the valley and those across the Jordan saw that the Israelite army had fled and that Saul and his sons had died, they abandoned their towns and fled. And the Philistines came and occupied them. 8 The next day, when the Philistines came to strip the dead, they found Saul and his three sons fallen on Mount Gilboa. 9 They cut off his head and stripped off his armor, and they sent messengers throughout the land of the Philistines to proclaim the news in the temple of their idols and among their people. 10 They put his armor in the temple of the Ashtoreths and fastened his body to the wall of Beth Shan. - 1 Samuel 31:7-10 (http://bible.gospelcom.net/bible)

mmThe excavations by Amahai Mazar at Beth Shan have uncovered Philistine pottery, a strainer jug, a fertility goddess statue, a Philistine bowl which were all Aegean in their styles (Archaeology and Biblical Research, Spring 1992, 63). In addition, a strong Egyptian presence from 1450 - 1150 B.C. was uncovered according to area supervisor Bob Mullins (Price 1997, 147). Its earliest level of occupation dates to about 3000 B.C., and the latest evidence found is from the Roman period which includes inscriptions, pottery, and an amphitheatre. Beth Shan is located between the Jordan and Jezreel Valleys (Blaiklock, 1983, 100).
mm After Saul's death, his body and the bodies of his sons (except Ishbosheth's, who would reign two years before David's rule) were placed on the wall at Beth Shan, his armor was placed at an Ashtoreth Temple, and his head was placed in a Temple of Dagon. A problem arose with this portion of Scripture because both Temples could not have existed at the same time. It was known that a Philistine Temple (of the god Dagon) and a Canaanite Temple (the goddess Astoreth) could not be present within the same level of occupation because the Canaanites were an earlier people and had gods of opposing peoples. The answer to this riddle is the belief that the Philistines more than likely absorbed the Canaanite gods into their beliefs and thus kept the Temple as an adjoining part of their Dagon Temple. In 1930, Alan Rowe uncovered the Philistine and Canaanite Temple in the same level of occupation at Beth Shan. This discovery once again proves that the Bible is textually and archaeologically accurate (Bible and Spade, Winter 1972, 9-11).

King David and Archaeology

Slingstones

Then he took his staff in his hand; and he chose for himself five smooth stones from the brook, and put them in a shepherds bag, in a pouch he had, and his sling was in his hand. And he drew near the Philistine. - 1 Samuel 17:40 (http://bible.gospelcom.net/bible)

Then David put his hand in his bag and took out a stone; and he slung it and struck the Philistine in the
forehead, so that the stone sunk deep in his forehead, and fell on his face to the earth. - 1 Samuel 17:49 (http://bible.gospelcom.net/bible)

mmAt one of the proposed sites of biblical Ai (Khirbet El-Maqatir), sling stones were recovered by the Bryant Wood excavation team. In most Churches, it is assumed that the sling stones that David used were mere pebbles in a stream that he placed into his sling to kill Goliath, but the Maqatir stones that were discovered were between the size of a softball and a baseball. Since David fought off lions and bears that went after his flocks (1 Sam. 17:34-37), it seems logical that the projectile had to be larger than a marble or a small golf ball. A good slinger can hurl stones up to a quarter mile (440 yards) at about 60 miles an hour and the best slingers, according to Grace Kellner, Artifacts Registrar at Maqatir, were left-handed Benjamites (see Judges 20 and 1 Chronicles 12:2) (Bible and Spade, Winter 1998, 2, 3).
mmE. M. Blaiklock writes that the first slings were probably made of stag antlers that were carved into the shape of a horse's head. The stone was placed within the jaws of the head and discharged with an over-arm jerk. At the site of Tell Halaf, a relief was discovered that depicts a slinger with the leather-pouched weapon in which the stone was placed inside the pouch, which was pulled tight to form a bag, and at the proper moment, one of the leather straps was released to throw the projectile (Blaiklock, 1983, 418).

A Modern Giant

1 Now the Philistines gathered their forces for war and assembled at Socoh in Judah. They pitched camp at Ephes Dammim, between Socoh and Azekah. 2 Saul and the Israelites assembled and camped in the Valley of Elah and drew up their battle line to meet the Philistines. 3 The Philistines occupied one hill and the Israelites another, with the valley between them. 4 A champion named Goliath, who was from Gath, came out of the Philistine camp. He was over nine feet [1] tall. 5 He had a bronze helmet on his head and wore a coat of scale armor of bronze weighing five thousand shekels [2] ; 6 on his legs he wore bronze greaves, and a bronze javelin was slung on his back. 7 His spear shaft was like a weaver's rod, and its iron point weighed six hundred shekels. [3] His shield bearer went ahead of him. - 1 Samuel 17: 1-7 (http://bible.gospelcom.net/bible)

mmAssigned to the fabled stories of The Brothers Grimm, giants took on mythical status until the stunning medical abnormality known as Robert Wadlow who, at his tallest, reached 8'11". Mr. Wadlow was at a normal height and weight at birth, but pituitary problems led to his outsized growth. By the age of eight, he was six feet tall; by the age of 16, he stood nearly 7'10" and weighed over 370 pounds (http://www.who2.com/robertwadlow.html). Born in Alton, Illinois in 1918, Robert Pershing Wadlow tried to maintain a normal life but was unsuccessful. At age 18, he was named the tallest Boy Scout at seven feet, four inches and later in life was hired by a shoe company to advertise its products. Wadlow, as with most individuals of abnormal stature, was plagued with Acromegaly (a pituitary eye disease) that stayed with Wadlow until his death in 1940 at the age of 22 (www.altonmuseum.com/robertwadlow.htm). Acromegaly, according to an Israeli neurologist, may have assisted David in his confrontation with Goliath.

Acromegaly and Armor

49 Reaching into his bag and taking out a stone, he slung it and struck the Philistine on the forehead. The stone sank into his forehead, and he fell facedown on the ground. 50 So David triumphed over the Philistine with a sling and a stone; without a sword in his hand he struck down the Philistine and killed him. - 1 Samuel 17:48-51 (http://bible.gospelcom.net/bible)

mmGoliath's words were a bit too hasty according to Dr. Vladimir Berginer, Israeli Neurologist, who believes that Goliath suffered from a hormonal disease that not only contributed to his enormous size and strength but also diminished his eyesight. This pituitary disease known as acromegaly presses on the optic nerve thus causing vision problems. Berginer's theory is that David hit Goliath with the stone, knocking him out, and then using the sword, he killed the giant (Artifax, http://www.msn.fullfeed.com/~scribe/digest20002.htm).
mm According to E.M. Blaiklock, Goliath's helmet (of Aegaen origin) may have also limited the giants ability to get a proper view of David, son of Jesse. With this type of armor, it is best to keep your head down and use the visor, but this failure to do so gave David an opportunity to strike with accuracy (Blaiklock, 1983, 218).

Ancient Giants (The Anakim and Pelasgian's)

1 Hear, O Israel. You are now about to cross the Jordan to go in and dispossess nations greater and stronger than you, with large cities that have walls up to the sky. 2 The people are strong and tall-Anakites! You know about them and have heard it said: "Who can stand up against the Anakites?" 3 But be assured today that the LORD your God is the one who goes across ahead of you like a devouring fire. He will destroy them; he will subdue them before you. And you will drive them out and annihilate them quickly, as the LORD has promised you. - Deuteronomy 9: 1-3 (http://bible.gospelcom.net/bible)

mmEight hundred years before King Saul, the descendants of Anak (Anakim) were mentioned on Egyptian Execration Texts. These contemporaries of Joseph are mentioned as the rulers of the Anakim Giants and their names were Eram, Obbe Ya'meeyu, Akiram, and "all of their men." It is believed that the Anakim, some four hundred years later, joined with the Philistines who eventually became a scourge to the Israelis.

1 Next we turned and went up along the road toward Bashan, and Og king of Bashan with his whole army marched out to meet us in battle at Edrei. 2 The LORD said to me, "Do not be afraid of him, for I have handed him over to you with his whole army and his land. Do to him what you did to Sihon king of the Amorites, who reigned in Heshbon." 11(Only Og king of Bashan was left of the remnant of the Rephaites. His bed [3] was made of iron and was more than thirteen feet long and six feet wide. [4] It is still in Rabbah of the Ammonites.) - Deuteronomy 3: 1, 2, 11 (http://bible.gospelcom.net/bible)

mmThe giant known as King Og was defeated by the Israelites in Bashan at the Battle of Edrei. Bashan's earliest occupation was between 3000 and 2000 B.C. An Egyptian document from the time of Thutmosis III and the Amarna letters reveals a strong agricultural settlement which was eventually taken over by the Israelites (Blaiklock, 1983, 93). It is believed that the King's bed was made in Raboth-Ammon (modern day Amman, Jordan) and that he was a descendant of the Zamzummim (Rephaim) who were also giants. Another group, known as the Pelasgians were quite possibly the Philistines or at least a close relation. Greek legend says that the Pelasgians had giants that lived among them (Old Testament Archaeology video, Northwestern College, 2000).

Philistine Origins

1 Now the Philistines gathered their forces for war and assembled at Socoh in Judah. - 1 Samuel 17:1 (http://bible.gospelcom.net/bible)

mmRecently, there has been some question as to the origin of the Philistines. Is there evidence for their existence? Is it possible that they came from the Greek world? According to Joseph Free, the Philistines entered Palestine in the twelfth century and attacked the Egyptians during the reign of Ramses III. Dr. Charles Aling (Northwestern College, St. Paul MN) believes that the Philistines came from Caphtor (Crete) and settled on the coast of Palestine, but there is no indication that Caphtor was the definitive location of their true origin (Aling, 1981, 120).
mm Dr. Aling states that there are many indicators that point to the Philistines (Sea Peoples) as having an Aegean origin. These proofs include pottery similarities (geometric patterns, double axe patterns), the words of the Philistines (Teren = Lord of the Philistines and Helmet = Kobah), a possible relationship to a day's battle in which one man fights another as representatives of each side of the conflict (related to Homer's Iliad), a plate that depicts a Greek warrior with armor similar to what Goliath wore, Philistine Temple architecture that is strikingly similar to Greek design, and the famous Phaistos Disk, discovered in 1903 on Crete, that shows the plumed headdress of the Philistines multiple times. At Medinet Habu (Thebes, Egypt), the plumed helmet of the Philistines can be seen in a carving that was uncovered by the Chicago Oriental Institute in the 1930's ((Old Testament Archaeology video, Northwestern College, 2000. Aling, 1981, 119).
mm The Philistine city of Ekron (Tell Miqne) has also yielded a connection to the Greek world in its Mycanaean pottery which contains Aegean motifs (the first phase of Philistine occupation). Tell Miqne's 1996 excavation led to the discoveries of a golden cobra headdress, which had its origin as part of an Egyptian deity statuette, an inscription that positively identifies the site as Ekron, and the name of one of its kings (Padi), uncovered in the summer of 1997 (Price, 1997, 222-227. Bible and Spade, Winter 1998, 26).

King David Inscriptions

And they anointed David king over Israel. David was thirty years old when he began to reign - 2 Samuel 5: 3, 4 (http://bible.gospelcom.net/bible)

mmSince the death of Kathleen Kenyon in the late 1970's, conservative scholars have desired to know whether Kenyon was correct in her belief that "…David and Solomon still remain unknown outside the Old Testament or literary sources ..." Even more puzzling to me is the artifact known as the Moabite Stone and its date of translation because many believe that the Tel Dan inscription (discovered in 1993) was the first reference to David outside the Old Testament. How can this be if the Moabite Stone was discovered first? As will be seen, the Tel Dan Inscription is probably the first complete inscription of King David that was discovered, not the first unearthed.
mm The first excavation at Tel Dan was conducted by Avraham Biran in 1966. Since that time, Biran has uncovered a bowl inscription that read "of the butchers," a probable reference to the cooks of the butchers from the Dan Royal Family. Another inscription reads, "belonging to Amotz (Amos)," not the biblical Amos. In addition to the excavation of a seventh-century B.C. building, an inscription relating to Baal, a "God who is in Dan" inscription verifying the site as Dan, an inscription directly related to the Israeli King Zechariah, and a city-gate complex were all unearthed. The Tel Dan inscription was discovered near this city-gate complex close to a recently discovered wall on the east side. This artifact was discovered by Gila Cook, who saw it protruding up from the ground and would have missed it if the sun had not highlighted the script which reads on line 8, "the king of Israel. And (I) slew (…the kin-) and on line 9 "g of the House of David. And I put…" obviously refers to the The House of David and the Kingship. (Biblical Archaeology Review, March/April 1994, 26-39). The Tel Dan Inscription is dated to the time of Hazael, an Aramean usurper (Price 1997, 169).

mm The story of the Moabite (Mesha) Stone reads like a novel of adventure. The stone tells the story of King Mesha of Moab and how his country had been oppressed by the Israelites for forty years from the time of Omri (ca. 876-869 B.C.) to Jehoram (ca. 849-842 B.C.), his insurrection against Israel and his war against the Edomites. The Moabite Stone was discovered in 1868 at Dibon, Jordan by a missionary named F.A. Klein. It was considered to be a good-luck amulet by the locals, and the stone was broken apart and sold. Fortunately, an impression was made of the artifact before its destruction and Clermont-Ganneau collected the remaining pieces and reconstructed it in 1873. The Moabite Stone's final resting place is in the Louvre in Paris (Schoville, 1978, 485). The portion that speaks of King David reads, "House of D…." The French scholar Andre LeMaire, who has provided further support in identifying the Tel Dan Inscription, believes that the Moabite Stone does contain the name David on line 31, a partially destroyed part of the inscription. Other biblical figures mentioned on the stone are Ahab, Omri and, of course, Mesha (Price, 1997, 171-172).
mm The "Heights of David" inscription, found in Egypt, may be a third reference to the Israeli King. Egyptologist Kenneth Kitchen of the University of Liverpool believes that the biblical Pharaoh Shishak (Sheshonq) may have carved David's name into the wall of the Amun Temple at Karnak, a practice that was developed by Thutmosis III during his reign to show his dominion over what he had conquered. Shishak's success over his many enemies, including Israel, is represented by over one hundred place-names on the Amun Temple wall. The name David is similar to an Ethiopian ruler's inscription from Axum that cites Psalms 19 and 65 in which the word Davit is used. The Davit of the Ethiopian inscription is the same as on the Temple of Amun wall, says Kitchen (Biblical Archaeology Review, January/February 1999, 34 - 35).

Jerusalem Archaeology

6 The king and his men marched to Jerusalem to attack the Jebusites, who lived there. The Jebusites said to David, "You will not get in here; even the blind and the lame can ward you off." They thought, "David cannot get in here." 7 Nevertheless, David captured the fortress of Zion, the City of David. 8 On that day, David said, "Anyone who conquers the Jebusites will have to use the water shaft [1] to reach those 'lame and blind' who are David's enemies. [2] " That is why they say, "The 'blind and lame' will not enter the palace." 9 David then took up residence in the fortress and called it the City of David. He built up the area around it, from the supporting terraces [3] inward. 10 And he became more and more powerful, because the LORD God Almighty was with him. - 2 Samuel 5:6-10 (http://bible.gospelcom.net/bible)

The Walls of Jerusalem and the Stone Stepped Structure

mmExcavations by Kathleen Kenyon (1961-1967) revealed that Jerusalem was an elongated triangle enclosing an area of about nine acres. Kenyon also states that there is no indication that David ever expanded his city but simply repaired it. The expansion of the city would resume later during the time of Solomon where he would expand the north to include the Temple (Bible and Spade Autumn 1972, 99-105). A fifty-foot stack of rocks discovered in Jerusalem could be where David built his Fortress of Zion. Archaeologist Eilat Mazar believes that David's Royal Palace may lie just north of this stone structure (Price, 1997, 165).

Warren's Shaft

1 All Israel came together to David at Hebron and said, "We are your own flesh and blood. 2 In the past, even while Saul was king, you were the one who led Israel on their military campaigns. And the Lord your God said to you, 'You will shepherd my people Israel, and you will become their ruler.' " 3 When all the elders of Israel had come to King David at Hebron, he made a compact with them at Hebron before the Lord , and they anointed David king over Israel, as the Lord had promised through Samuel. 4 David and all the Israelites marched to Jerusalem (that is, Jebus). The Jebusites who lived there 5 said to David, "You will not get in here." Nevertheless, David captured the fortress of Zion, the City of David. 6 David had said, "Whoever leads the attack on the Jebusites will become commander-in-chief." Joab son of Zeruiah went up first, and so he received the command. 7 David then took up residence in the fortress, and so it was called the City of David. 8 He built up the city around it, from the supporting terraces [1] to the surrounding wall, while Joab restored the rest of the city. 9 And David became more and more powerful, because the Lord Almighty was with him. - 1 Chronicles 11: 1-7 (http://bible.gospelcom.net/bible)

"Whoever climbs up by the way of the water shaft and defeats the Jebusites…he shall be chief and captain."
- 2 Samuel 5:8 (http://bible.gospelcom.net/bible)

mmFor years, scholars have debated these passages trying to figure out how Joab entered the city of Jerusalem. In 1867, Captain Charles Warren discovered a shaft that was not a man-made creation but a sink hole or an erosion shaft caused by water percolating through limestone and this one of two ways that entrance to city was possible. The first entrance would've been via the Gihon Spring and up Warrens Shaft and the second would have been through a tunnel on the eastern slope (Brantley, 1995, 125). Though the shaft is a naturally occurring opening, it is believed that the Jebusites used this as a means to acquire clean water and one can assume they did not know about the opening that Joab entered to take the city.

David's Defensive Tower

Once David became King, he built up defensive towers in order to protect his city. One of these towers was discovered in 1997 by Ronnie Reich who uncovered a large stone structure in the southern part of Jerusalem (Price, 1997, 165). King David's Political Cabinet 15 David reigned over all Israel, doing what was just and right for all his people. - 2 Samuel 8:15 (http://bible.gospelcom.net/bible)

mmIn 1973, a Ph'D candidate by the name of Tryvgge N.D. Mettinger gave his dissertation on the names of King David and Solomon's cabinet members. The method known as Prosopography was used to uncover the meanings and duties of David's and Solomon's high state officials. Dr Mettinger's used the writings of 2 Samuel 8, 15, 29; 1 Kings 4, 5, 9, 19 and 1 Chronicles 27 to complete his lengthy project. Mazhkir was the first title that he chose to tackle. Mazhkir or the Recorder (Secretary of State) was responsible for handling communications between the King and his subjects. He was also responsible for the ceremonial at royal audiences and received vassals as well as foreign envoys to the Kings court (Chief of the Protocol). The second title investigated was the Sopher or Scribe/Royal Secretary. The Sopher was responsible for foreign and domestic correspondence and keeping the Royal annals. David's royal secretary, Seraiah, might have been an Egyptian. His name means "Royal letter writer of Pharaoh." The Scribe kept the archives in the State Secretariate (Scribes chambers) which was located in the Kings Palace. The third title was an addition by King David (2 Samuel 29:23-26) and it was called Al-Hammas meaning "Over the Tribute" (In charge of the forced levy). This third office was created by David after he defeated the Canaanites which probably had its origin with the Canaanites. The forced levy was of two types in which the Canaanites were conscripted to permanent levy (1 Kings 9:20,21) while the northern Israelites were conscripted to periodic/temporary levy's (1 Kings 5: 13-16) (Bible and Spade, Autumn 1973, 115-118).

Solomon's additions to his cabinet

mmNot meaning to jump ahead of myself, it may be appropriate at this time to briefly explain Solomon's contribution to his administration. Solomon created three new offices (al-hannitstsabim, reeh hammelek, and the al-habbaith) in which to govern duty, create an advisory position as well as appoint a property overseer. The al-hannitstsabim or "Over the Officers" (Superintendent of Regional Governors) was created by Solomon once he created the 12 administrative districts to govern taxes. The Superintendent was the head over these 12 districts. (I Kings 4:22-27). The reeh hammelek or "Principal Officer and the King's Friend" was a counselor to the King and the al-habbaith meaning "Over the Household" (Comptroller of the Household) was an Administer of the Royal Estate like Joseph. The steward of David's property was responsible for the Royal trade (1 Kings 10:28) and for mining activities (Bible and Spade, Autumn 1973, 115-118).

The Pool of Gibeon and Archaeology

13 Joab son of Zeruiah and David's men went out and met them at the pool of Gibeon. One group sat down on one side of the pool and one group on the other side. - 2 Samuel 2:13 (http://bible.gospelcom.net/bible)

mmThe site of Gibeon was excavated by James Pritchard of the University of Pennsylvania in cooperation with the Church Divinity School between 1956 and 1962. The site known as Gibeon (Al-Jib) is approximately 9 miles north of Jerusalem and its earliest record of habitation is about 3100 B.C. that encapsulated the entire Bronze Age up to 1200 B.C. The name Gibeon was uncovered at the site twenty five times. Also discovered were imported wares, a royal seal and storage jar handles (lllustrated Bible Dictionary, 1998, 559). The Pool of Gibeon, where David was victorious, measures 36 feet in diameter and 30 feet deep (Blaiklock, 1983, 214).

David's Palace at Jerusalem

2 One evening David got up from his bed and walked around on the roof of the palace.
.................................................................................................... - 2 Samuel 11:2 (http://bible.gospelcom.net/bible)

mmIt is believed that David's Palace consisted of a series of terraces filled with stones which faced eastward. Though no architectural remains firmly attributed to David's Palace have yet been found, approximately thirty-four ancient Capitals have been found in Israel amongst other public buildings so why would David's residence be any different? At Shiloh's area G, excavators have uncovered square hewn stones probably cut by Phoenicians that are similar to the ones found by Kathleen Kenyon at David's proposed dwelling. In Kenyon's excavation of area H, a casemate wall was found, a casemate wall is a divider with square compartments built into it. This wall is dated to the general time period (tenth century B.C.) in which David lived. The wall protected the Palace from the north (Bible and Spade, Winter 1997, 16-17).

The width and breadth of David's Kingdom

3 Moreover, David fought Hadadezer king of Zobah, as far as Hamath, when he went to establish his control along the Euphrates River... 6 He put garrisons in the Aramean kingdom of Damascus, and the Arameans became subject to him and brought tribute. The LORD gave David victory everywhere he went. - 1 Chronicles 18: 3, 6 (http://bible.gospelcom.net/bible)

mmCritics such as Hermann Guthe and Hugo Winckler have attempted in years past to say that David's kingdom, as described in the Bible, was smaller that what is written but archaeology has once again proven the critics wrong. The area of criticism revolves around 1 Chronicles 18:3, 6 in which the Bible says that David's empire included the area north of Damascus and Zobah (the land of King Hadadezer) as part of his kingdom. Archaeology has shown that Zobah lies north and not south of Damascus which is what the critics asserted. William F Albright supports this conclusion in saying that "It follows that the biblical narrative is perfectly reasonable geographically…David's empire then extended from the Gulf of Aqaba in the south to the regions of Hums in the north, and it remained, at least nominally, in Solomon's hands until his death or shortly afterward" (Free, 1992, 136).

King David's Tomb?

10 Then David rested with his fathers and was buried in the City of David. 11 He had reigned forty years over Israel- seven years in Hebron and thirty-three in Jerusalem. - 1 Kings 2:10, 11 (http://bible.gospelcom.net/bible)

mmThe tombs known as T1-T8 were excavated by Raymond Weill between 1913 and 1914. In 1924, the last tomb (T9) was discovered and it is believed by Hershel Shanks, editor of Biblical Archaeology Review, that David's tomb location may have been discovered. The tomb that Shanks believes may be the tomb of David is T1. The attributes of the tomb include a long tunnel (52 ½ feet long, 8 feet wide and 13 feet high) with a lower level, a back wall with a deep impression (similar to later 1st temple tombs that were discovered) where a body, sarcophagus/burial container could be placed (4 ft wide, 6 ft long) and steps leading down to another entrance where presumably an additional person wanted to be laid to rest. T1 rests on a mound that is surrounded by the lesser tombs (T2-T9). Mr. Shanks goes on to lay out his argument for this tomb being the burial spot of David with many interesting arguments. He says that The City of David was located on the east-ridge of the city, south of the present Temple Mount, (10-11 acres was the size of the City at the time of David) of which no one will argue, that royalty was buried inside the city unlike many in the ancient world who had the beliefs that a dead corpse would contaminate a large population. Shanks cites scripture in his defense of the tomb in that the Kings of Judah (David to Ahaz) were buried within the city of David (1 Kings 2, 11, 14, 15, 22. 2 Kings 9, 12. 2 Chronicles 9, 12) and that Nehemiah states that the Davidic tombs were in the southern part of the city (Neh. 3:16) where these tombs are located but the critics have also voiced their opinions regarding Shanks' theory. The skeptical minimalist camp states that T1-T9 are not tombs and that they do not date to the time of the giant killer. David Ussishkin disagrees that it's David's tombs because of its crudity but confessed to Shanks that some Kings tombs (at Byblos and Tunis) were crude outside but that the burial artifacts were impressive. Kenyon called it (T1) a cistern but said that if it was it used this way it was unusual and she could not explain how it could be used as one. Gabriel Barkay said that T1 was used for wine in the Roman period but didn't know what its earlier use was for. Shanks defends his claims in that little is known about First and Second Temple tombs, that T1 is not characteristic of any tombs found in Israel except those near it (T2-T9) and that not a single tomb that has been found in Jerusalem that can be dated to the time of David and we don't know what a tomb from David's time looked like (Biblical Archaeology Review, January/February 1995, 62-67).

King Solomon and Archaeology

Temple Architecture and the Temple location

1 Solomon gave orders to build a temple for the Name of the LORD and a royal palace for himself - 2 Chronicles 2:1 (http://bible.gospelcom.net/bible)

mmThough the temple of Solomon has yet to be revealed, it is interesting to see how accurate the Bible truly is concerning temple architecture and how it parallels with what we know in scripture. 2 Chronicle 3:15-17 speaks of the free standing columns and vestibule that is similar to what we see in Syrian architecture and 1 Kings 6:36 tells us of the use cedar beams in the inner courtyard that once again is supported by archaeological discoveries in Syria (northern) and Phoenicia. The Phoenicians and Egyptians also employed the use of palm trees, flowers, chains and lighting techniques in their architecture similar to those described in 2 Chronicles 3:5. It is true that Solomon's temple has not been recovered but Architect Leen Ritmeyer believes that it was located at the es-Sakhra rock formation over which the Dome of the Rock is built including Zerubbabel's Temple and Herod's (Bible and Spade, Spring 1994, 64).

"…to the House (Temple) of Yahweh."

mmThe antiquities market has produced some rather interesting finds. A direct link to Solomon's Temple was discovered and Hershel Shanks wrote an article about it in an issue of Biblical Archaeology Review (November/December 1997). One of the artifacts is the famed pomegranate scepter head which will be discussed shortly but of equal note is the temple receipt that reads, "Pursuant to the order of you of Ashyahu the king to give by the hand of Zecharyahu silver of Tarshish to the House (Temple) of Yahweh three shekels." The receipt is owned by London Collector Schlomo Moussaief unfortunately, know one knows where it was discovered, but Shanks believes that someone may know but they are not talking. The ostraca measures 4 inches wide by 3.5 inches tall and has the name Tarshish on it. This may be the Tarshish of 1 Kings 10:22 where gold, silver, apes and ivory were acquired by Solomon and Hiram.

UPDATE > There is speculation about this artifacts authenticity (link, link). As with all web links, conduct your own investigation.

The Pomegranate Scepter Head and Solomon's Temple

mmThe ivory pomegranate scepter head was discovered by French Scholar Andre LeMaire in an antiquities shop in Jerusalem in 1979. The artifact, was dated to the 8th century B.C., was eventually purchased by the Israel Museum in 1988. The inscription reads "For the house of Yahweh, holy to the priests," The house of Yahweh is more than likely referring to the Temple or the "House of the Lord." An additional scepter head was discovered that probably also belonged to the Temple or was used for a horses bridle (Assyrian relief depictions) but there was no inscription on it when it was discovered (Price, 1997, 185 - 186).

Solomon's Father-in-Law

1 Solomon made an alliance with Pharaoh king of Egypt and married his daughter. He brought her to the City of David until he finished building his palace and the temple of the LORD , and the wall around Jerusalem. - 1 Kings 3:1 - 2 Chronicles 2:1 (http://bible.gospelcom.net/bible)

mmAccording to Egyptologist Dr. Charles Aling, the father-in-law of one of Solomon's wives was more that likely the Pharaoh Siamun. 1 Kings 3:1 states that Solomon made an alliance with an Egyptian King which included a treaty in marriage. Aling says that typically Pharaohs would receive daughters of foreign rulers into their harems but this is unique in that Siamun probably considered Solomon an equal and allowed his daughter to join the wealthy King. Kenneth Kitchen states that Siamun was the sixth king of Dynasty Twenty-one and he reigned from 978-959 B.C. Siamun, after conquering Gezer of the Philistines, gave the town to Solomon. Interestingly, a representation was found at the Temple of Amon at Tanis which shows the Aegaean double-axe (Philistine's were more than likely Aegeans) that illustrates Egyptian and Philistine conflict (Aling, 1981, 121).

Hazor, Gezer and Megiddo

15 Here is the account of the forced labor King Solomon conscripted to build the LORD's temple,
his own palace, the supporting terraces, the wall of Jerusalem, and Hazor, Megiddo and Gezer.
........................................................................................- 1 Kings 9:15 (http://bible.gospelcom.net/bible)

mmYigael Yadin's excavations of Hazor's massive gate and city wall in the 1950's has come under attack by the critics of the Bible. The critics contend there was no David or Solomon and believe that their reigns should be considered a part of someone's fertile imagination. Fortunately, the Bible also has its defenders. Amnon Ben-Tor has recently continued the work of Yadin and has also come to the conclusion that Hazor was present during the tenth century solidifying the work of Yadin. In a Palace room, the name Hazor was discovered on one of four tablets that were uncovered. Included with this find were multiplication tables, commercial and legal documents. This is the first time that the name Hazor was found outside of the Bible (Bible and Spade, Spring/Summer 1997, 68-70).

mmSolomon's Gezer was first excavated by R.A.S. MacCalister in 1902. This 30 acre mound is 15 miles west of Jerusalem and was the dowry that Solomon's wife was given by her father (Siamun) as chronicled in 1 Kings 9:16, 17 (Blaiklock, 1983, 212). What remains of Gezer includes a destruction layer (field III), a monumental city-gate (1/2 of the gate) and a wall from the time of Solomon that was unearthed by a archaeological team from California in 1994 (Bible and Spade, Winter 1982, 20-21. Schoville, 1978, 359).

mmMegiddo was originally excavated by G. Schumacher in 1903. In the 1960's, Yigael Yadin took stratigraphical soundings at the site in order to clarify the level in which Solomon built one of his royal chariot cities and the stables (Blaiklock 1983, 308-309) but the Yadin theory about the fourth stratum (Solomon level of occupation) was later determined to be from the time of Ahab but is still disputed among scholars (Free, 1992, 143). What remains of Solomon's Megiddo is a monumental city-gate, like Gezers, the piers of a podium (Building 338) that covered rough hewn stones, a court yard (313) (Bible and Spade Spring 1972, 44) and a strikingly similar casemate-wall gateway in all three Solomonic cities (Megiddo, Hazor and Gezer). Unfortunately, much was lost to the destruction of these walls by builders after the time of Solomon or the archaeologists would've found more, perhaps homes, offices and palaces (Millard, 1985, 107) but a subsidiary palace may have been found!

Solomon's Palace at Megiddo?

"Hewed stones; sawed with stones" is the 1 Kings 6:9 passage that may have given the archaeologist more confidence in a pre-1972 discovery at Megiddo. The Palace that was unearthed at Megiddo was discovered in an ancient courtyard that measured 194 feet by 187 feet and was surrounded by a stone wall with a 4-room gateway. The lower level of the palace (75 square feet) contained twelve rooms with an additional courtyard. The similarities between the Jerusalem Palace and the Megiddo structure compels scholars to believe that both dwellings follow the same, basic blue print (Bible and Spade, Summer 1972, 68).

Solomon and the Queen of Sheba

1 When the queen of Sheba heard about the fame of Solomon and his relation to the name of the LORD, she came to test him with hard questions. - 1 Kings 10:1 (http://bible.gospelcom.net/bible)

mmFor years, the story of Solomon and Sheba was considered a myth or a "romantic tale" simply because nothing from her homeland had been discovered and that there was no firm connection between the two nations. In the 1870's, two Europeans (Halevy and Glaser) disguised as Bedouins reached Marib (the capital of Sheba) and were able to make some impressions of some inscriptions in the area before they were forced to flee. These inscriptions proved that the Capital of Sheba did exist. In 1951, Marib was partially excavated. An oval shaped temple, over 300 feet long, was found almost buried in the sand. One of the inscriptions on this temple wall showed that the people of the temple worshipped the god of the moon known as ILumquh. The Temple also contained fountains that flowed into the temple courtyard. Excavations have been hampered by the local administration of Marib at least to the date of this source (Bible and Spade, Summer 1972, 70). mmA clay stamp that was used to seal frankincense and myrrh cargo bags was found at Bethel in 1957. This discovery proves that there was a relationship between the two nations at the time of Solomon and Sheba, is probably the earliest South Arabian object ever found in Palestine and clearly shows a direct contact between the two nations early in the first millennium B.C. (Free 1992, 146).

Sheba's Camels

2 Arriving at Jerusalem with a very great caravan-with camels carrying spices, large quantities of gold,
and precious stones-she came to Solomon and talked with him about all that she had on her mind.
...........................................................................................................- 1 Kings 10:2 (http://bible.gospelcom.net/bible)

mmMany in the past have been skeptical about the verse in 1 Kings 10:1-2 concerning the Queen of Sheba's Camels because it was assumed that Camels weren't domesticated at the time of Solomon. Archaeology has proven this belief wrong in the fact that the camel was domesticated as early 1200 B.C., at least two hundred years before Solomon. It is also known that the camel is represented on the Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser and on a sculptured stone relief discovered at Halaf (Free, 1992, 145).

Trade Routes, Solomon and Sheba

mmIt has been discovered that the biblical trade routes that Solomon and Sheba used have been discovered and verified by noted scholars Nelson Gleuck and Yohanon Aharoni through archaeological surveys. The routes ran from Judah to Southern Arabia to the Negev and were controlled by fortresses between the tenth and seventh centuries B.C. Some of these fortresses have been found at Kadesh Barnea, Tel Arad (east of the Dead Sea), Horvat Uza and Ezion Geber where Solomon harbored his fleet for trade with the South (Bible and Spade, Autumn 1972, 107-109).

The fishpools of Heshbon

4 Your neck is like an ivory tower. Your eyes are the pools of Heshbon by the gate of Bath Rabbim. Your nose is like the tower of Lebanon looking toward Damascus. - Song of Solomon 7:4 (http://bible.gospelcom.net/bible)

mmHeshbon was first excavated in 1968 by Andrews University. Heshbon or Tell Hesban is located 47 miles east of Jerusalem and more than likely contains the ruins of the biblical city within the newer metropolis. A large reservoir was found at Heshbon measuring fifty by forty by fifteen and may be the "fish-pools of Heshbon" mentioned by Solomon in Song of Solomon 7:4 (Blaiklock, 1983, 236. Schoville, 1978, 488).

Solomon's Wealth and its final destination

The discussion of Solomon's wealth was intentionally put off to the last moment because there is simply no concrete archaeological evidence that has been produced to support the claims of his enormous wealth or is there? Could it be possible that archaeologists and other scholars have been looking in the wrong places? It is true that Israel has produced little showing Solomon's wealth, but why look specifically to Israel for this support or why is it such an amazing concept that Kings prior to or after Solomon had exorbitant wealth?

King Solomon's dinners of gold

All King Solomon's goblets were gold, and all the household articles in the Palace of the Forest of Lebanon were pure gold. Nothing was made of silver, because silver was considered of little value in Solomon's days. - 1 Kings 10:21 (http://bible.gospelcom.net/bible)

Sir Leonard Woolley, while excavating at Ur, found uncovered golden cups and dishes dated to 2600 B.C., over 1600 years before Solomon. Other gold dishes have also been recovered from Ugarit and still other objects of interest continue to be sold on the antiquities market. So it is possible that items similarly used in Solomon's Temple could have been produced and used by other Kings in antiquity (Bible and Spade, Spring-Summer-Autumn 1982, 64)

Gold-plated Temples, Personal Wealth and Golden Origins

Solomon covered the inside of the temple with pure gold, and he extended gold chains across the front of the inner sanctuary, which was overlaid with gold. 22 So he overlaid the whole interior with gold. - 1 Kings 10:21 (http://bible.gospelcom.net/bible)

mmGold-plated Temples are another area that scholars should've previously looked into in order to compliment the biblical story of Solomon. A few noteworthy examples would have to be Esarhaddon's Ashur Temple that had gold-plated doors, Neo-Babylon's Nabonidas whose Temple of Sin at Harran had walls of silver and gold, Amenophis III's Temple of Amun (Thebes) that had plated gold throughout its interior with floors that were plated with silver and finally Ramses III's Shrine at Medinet Habu which was paved with silver and had gold door posts (Bible and Spade, Spring-Summer-Autumn 1982, 68-69). Personal wealth, some taken by force and others a show of power, has also been recorded for posterity such as Pythius', a subject of Xerxes of Persia who had 7,000 lbs. of gold, Trajan's capture of gold from the Dacian's (500,000 lbs.) and Anastasius' gold that he left upon his death approximately 320,000 lbs. But one may ask, where did this gold originally come from?
mm It is believed that the main locations for gold exploration and mining would be from Western Turkey, Egypt, Wawat, Nubia and Western Arabia (Sheba). 1 Kings 10:11 speaks of the "Gold of Ophir" but no one knows exactly where Ophir was, though the name Ophie (presumably Ophir) was discovered on an ostracon from Tell Qasile, Israel, it gave no clues to the location (Bible and Spade, Spring-Summer-Autumn 1982, 68-69. Bible and Spade, Autumn 1994, 107).

Solomon's Gold, Ivory and Wood Throne

18 Then the king made a great throne inlaid with ivory and overlaid with fine gold. 19 The throne had six steps, and its back had a rounded top. - 1 Kings 10:18, 19 (http://bible.gospelcom.net/bible)

mmThe Bible states that Solomon had a throne made that was made of ivory and overlaid it with pure gold (1 Kings 10:18). Is this an exaggerated account from the Bible or is it true that ancient Kings had thrones of almost pure gold and ivory? Archaeology has revealed to us, in more than one case, that Kings did not only have thrones made of gold but also weapons, robes and bedsteads made partially of gold. An ivory bedstead and throne was discovered at Salamis and fragments of ivory and have been recovered from Samaria and Assyria. Howard Carter discovered King Tut's tomb chair in his excavation in the 1920's. Tut's chair was plated with pure gold and other chairs that were discovered, had the back and legs covered with gold. Queen Hetepheres' tomb contained a bed, carrying-chair and canopy that had gold covered woodwork (Bible and Spade, Autumn 1994, 100).

Objects of War

mmOther signs of wealth, not limited to chairs or bedsteads, were the decorative objects of war that have been discovered during excavations. Golden items, similar to Solomon's five hundred shields of gold (1 Kings 10: 16, 17), have been discovered. Objects such as golden blades for daggers and a gold axe-head were discovered at Ur, but of more interest to this discussion is the list that Sargon II compiled after his invasion of Musasir (northwest Assyria). Sargon bragged of taking six gold shields (Bible and Spade, Autumn 1994, 102-103).

Where did Solomon's Wealth go?

25 In the fifth year of King Rehoboam, Shishak king of Egypt attacked Jerusalem. 26 He carried off the treasures of the temple of the LORD and the treasures of the royal palace. He took everything, including all the gold shields Solomon had made. - 1 Kings 14: 25, 26 (http://bible.gospelcom.net/bible)

mmIn 1994, an interesting article appeared in Bible and Spade magazine. The author of the article, Kenneth Kitchen, believes that the Shishak invasion into Israel may hold the answer to this puzzling question. When Shishak (Sheshonq) led his campaign against Israel and Judah, after the split of the Northern and Southern kingdoms, he took the riches of Solomon's Temple with him back to Egypt (1 Kings 14: 25, 26). This incursion probably happened around 925 B.C., a year later, Shishak was dead and his son Osorkon I ruled. Less than four years after Solomon's death, Osorkon I dedicated gifts to the god/goddesses of Egypt and this was recorded on a temple pillar in Bubastis, Egypt which is located in the Eastern
Nile Delta.
mm Recorded on the Bubastis pillar is a list of riches that he has chose to dedicate to the deities and they include 2,300,000 of deben of gold and silver, 383 tons of precious metals coupled with an inscription that reads, "What his majesty gave to the Temple of Aman-re...a standing statue offering incense...its body of beaten gold and silver, amounting to: gold, 183 deben, silver,19,000 deben,…black copper" "gold, lapis...332,000 deben, total, 594,3000 deben." The question that Kitchen cannot help but ask is how could Osorkon I have acquired so much gold in such a short period of time? Kitchen believes that the gold dedicated to the Egyptian deities may have been part of Solomon's great wealth taken by his father Shishak in 925 B.C. (Bible and Spade, Autumn 1994, 108, 109).
mm As this paper meticulously shows, there is substantial evidence for Saul, David and Solomon. Unfortunately, there will be those that will say that conservative archaeologists are trying to "prove the Bible through archaeology." The Bible can stand on its own merits as a sound theological, and yes, historical document without anyone's assistance. I do fear that those that deny the archaeological evidence for early Israel are putting themselves and their readership outside of science. The very thing they presume people-of-faith do.

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http://http://bible.gospelcom.net/bible, Gospel Communications International. Muskegon, Michigan: 1995-2003

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07/23/2007