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Noah's Ark and The Gilgamesh Epic
by Rick Dack, Founder and Director of A.D. Communications.

Celebrity opinion, religious bias, satirical abuse, and academic liberalism powered by the television networks have given viewers false impressions about the Bible. Cable & Network stations such as A&E, NBC, CBS, ABC, The Cartoon Network, FOX, The Discovery Channel, National Geographic Channel, and The History Channel have broadcast documentaries about the Bible. The Bible is either mocked, considered a myth, an exaggerated text or a plagiarized (stolen or copied) compilation by those within the media and liberal academia. Noah's Ark and Noah's Flood are subjects that have been accused of being at least 3 out of the 4.

The Gilgamesh Epic, discovered about 1871, has been used specifically as proof that Moses stole (plagiarized) the flood story from an earlier culture.

It is the belief of A.D. Communications that the Flood Story of Noah was contained on earlier tablets than that of the Epic of Gilgamesh dismissing the idea that Moses stole from earlier cultures to write Genesis.


Below are some of the comments made on television. (Link to Noah's Ark TV Documentaries)

Quote: "The Noah story contains all the best elements in folklore…a threat to humanity, a sense of precariousness of life, the danger and possibility of interacting with…the divine."

My Comment: Noah's Ark is folklore? I thought these programs were meant to provide both sides of the topic or issue. I guess I was wrong. They are propagandist at their core. David Vanderhooft (Asst Professor of Hebrew Scripture at Boston College") made the above quote on "Mysteries of Noah's Flood" - TLC (2002).

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Quote: "…here for the first time was practically verbatim written confirmation that the stories contained in the Bible had (occurred - my insertion) outside of the Bible."

My Comment: The Gilgamesh Epic, of whom Tinney is referring, is not even practically verbatim of Noah's Flood. There are 11-12 similarities, 2-3 lines of discrepancy and over 22 differences between the Bible and The Epic of Gilgamesh. Verbatim? Was Moses a Plagiarist? Dr. Steve Tinney (Asst Curator, University of Pennsylvania Museum) made the above quote on "Mysteries of Noah's Flood" - TLC (2002).

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Quote: "If you read the stories...the passages in Gilgamesh and you didn't tell people where they come from you'd say… this is from the Bible it sounds almost the same."

My Comment: See previous note. Bruce Zukerman (Univ. of S. Ca.) made the above quote on "Mysteries of Noah's Flood" - TLC (2002)

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Quote: "There is very little doubt that the Mesopotamian literary traditions that include these flood narratives is much older than the Hebrew one."

My Comment: Just because Genesis was "compiled" during the 1400's doesn't mean that it originated with Gilgamesh or that Moses was a plagiarist. The same argument can be reversed. No doubt that Noah had tablets passed down to him from previous generations that were eventually passed down to Moses. The Jews had a strong written and oral tradition. Remember that the Gilgamesh Epic (discovered about 1871) fragments were dated anywhere from 1750-612 B.C. (Randall Price, The Stones Cry Out) over 1,000 yrs of fragments to piece together. No doubt a copy of an earlier text (presumably 2600 B.C.) was written but it has not been recovered so what we see is the opposite of the programs assertion. We have a fragmented copy that dates before, during or after the compiling of Genesis around 1400 B.C. but the program writers/interviewees don't tell you that fact. The flood story is contained on tablet 11 of the 12 discovered. I personally believe the Flood occurred pre-Hassuna (5500 B.C.) and others believe it happened during the Ubaid period (4100-3750 B.C.). I personally believe that the Tower of Babel events occurred during this period (Ubaid) and not the famed Flood due to the introduction of mud brick construction to build structures including Ziggurats (Tower of Babel). This is just a theory which is all anyone else can academically conclude. David Vanderhooft (Asst. Professor of Hebrew Scripture at Boston College) made the above quote on "Mysteries of Noah's Flood" - TLC (2002)

Did Moses plagiarize the Gilgamesh Epic to write the Noah story?

I have provided a side by side comparison. You be the Judge.

If your interested in more information about the Gilgamesh Epic or would like to read an english translation of the texts, buy James Pritchard's book series called The Ancient Near East (Volumes I and II). Please be aware that Prichard has scripture references in the margins pointing out where there might be parallels with the Bible.

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JOSEPH
His Life and Archaeology
by Rick Dack, Founder and Director of A.D. Communications.

"THE BIBLE IS A FAIRY TALE" - Bill Maher, host of Politically Incorrect on ABC. August 22, 2001

"The people who wrote the Bible, it was not meant to be history it was not meant to be literal" - Bill Maher, host of Politically Incorrect on ABC. - CRI: 1-28-2002

"The Biblical tradition is a composite of..."legends that still may be regarded as containing moral truths but until now they must be regarded as uncertain historical provenance." - William Dever, University of Arizona, frequent Bible Archaeology Review magazine contributor (Digging for Answers).

nnnCan we trust the Bible? Does the Bible touch history or is the text a grand conspiracy among writers who decided to develop an ancient series of tales? The last question is ludicrous of course but many scholars and television personalities spout comments and opinions not out of credibility but perhaps out of "parental" force fed religious training or simply a forum to speak out of sheer ignorance of the facts. It doesn't seem to matter what is fact or fable, if you've got a national forum (Television or national magazines) your guaranteed to have sheep some follow the pseudo-shepherd. Within the realm of academia this also seems to be the case with those that contribute to national archaeological journals. One individual (Willam Dever)) has appeared on cable programs, attended and spoke at Biblical Archaeology Festivals almost every year in a different city but when he took over a functioning magazine (Biblical Archaeologist) he failed to continue with the traditional name. How can a person do all these "related" activities as well as make a living at it but is unwilling to subject himself to be identified with such a publication in name? Equally abhorrent are persons of faith unable to defend themselves on national television.

nnnThe two examples are John Tesh and Lori Cole who were asked to appear on "Politically Incorrect." Comedian Bill Maher (host) has the typical round table program where guests shout each other down to be heard and most episodes have one conservative up against three liberals on any given topic. Maher usually throws out some statement trusting that those as guests will be less informed than he and spouts his usual ignorance about the Bible being a myth unfortunately both Tesh and Cole failed to defend their faith with evidence and Maher considered both guests as victims to his opinion. If Maher is correct and the Bible is wrong surely there must be an absence of fact right? Since this " Bible myth" has no verifiability and the hottest topic in archaeological ( academic) circles is the denial of the 40 year Exodus let's start there. Better yet we should start where the Exodus truly had its beginnings and that's with the entrance of Joseph approximately 400 years prior into Egypt as a slave and his rise to second in command. Joseph's background Prior to Joseph's ascension to Vizier a number of things should be briefly mentioned. It's known, at least by conservative Egyptologists, that the typical wage for a slave was the approximate 20 pieces of silver. This fee steadily rose from 20 to 30 to the height of 60 shekels (1) according to Dr. James Hoffmeier which is cited in his book "Israel in Egypt." After his purchase by Potiphar (Gen. 37:36) the "Captain of the Guard" (an authentic Egyptian title which could not have been made up later. It's also known that private individuals such as Potiphar could and did own slaves) (2) Joseph became the "Overseer of his House" or rather his steward (over all slaves), also a well attested title. It should also be said that Joseph had to be literate as part of his function as a scribe as Overseer. (3, book)

nnnAfter the unfortunate advances of Potiphars wife toward Joseph he was unlawfully put into prison, the only prisons of this type that were maintained exactly and precisely the way the Bible describes them were located in Egypt. A typical prison penalty from any nation other than Egypt was either a strict fine or capitol punishment for offenses rendered but only in Egypt do we see the Biblical Genesis prison. According to the Hayes/Brooklyn Papyrus document (1955) a remarkable amount of slaves, forty five out of the seventy nine mentioned were Asiatics (Hebrews). While in prison at Khenret, Joseph encountered the Baker and the Cupbearer (Butler) who told him of their dreams. Of the two, the Cupbearer seems to have the most intriguing dream that parallels the Bible historically in that most Egyptians believed in dreams and believed they told the future. The dream of the three branches (Gen. 40:9-11) as told to Joseph who in turn interpreted this back to the teller is clearly supportable on the wall painting of the Tomb of Nakht which shows the 3 branches of the agricultural grapevine industry (4). The Bible also states that Joseph held a position under the "keeper of the prison" (Genesis 39:22,23) who appointed Joseph over all the other inmates. This title of "keeper" or overseer is another legitimate title found in Middle Kingdom inscriptions. (5)

The Career of Joseph

nnnOnce the Cupbearer was released from prison and was reinstated in his position Joseph remained as a prisoner. It's believed it was sometime until he (Joseph) was called by Pharaoh to interpret the dreams. These dreams connected with the seven fat/lean cows and grain, as stated before, were believed by the Egyptians as omens for the future thus Joseph was called to appear before Pharaoh after the Cupbearer relayed his story about the interpreter (Joseph). It's interesting to note that The Chester Beatty III papyrus dated to Dynasty 12. 1991-1783 B.C. is called the Dream Omen papyrus. This document in its basic structure is similar to the dream that Pharaoh relayed to Joseph…

-n- In each dream the dreamer sees himself doing something. (He was standing by the Nile) Genesis 41:1.

" - The dreams have oracle power, they can predict the future. (Pharaoh seeks interpreters for his dreams) Genesis 41:8.

" - The dreams are allegorical. (Seven cows, sleek and fat. Seven other cows, ugly and gaunt) Genesis 41:2-4.

n - The dreams have animals for symbology.(animals are seen as large or small harvests) Genesis 41:2-4. (6)

The Beatty Papyrus

nnnThe question has also come up "Did Joseph appear before an Egyptian or a foreign king"? The inquiry arises from the fact that the Hyksos were fellow Asiatics. The theory follows the line that Joseph could've more easily climbed the ranks of Government with a fellow Semitic in charge where as with an Egyptian leader he would've had more difficulties. Well it can be determined by the biblical text quite easily that it was indeed an Egyptian. The Egyptians were extremely conscious of cleanliness, according to A. Rosalie David's book, The Ancient Egyptians, temple entry had a strict code to follow regarding rules of cleanliness. The priests several days before entry into the temple had to purify themselves by chewing natron and had to fumigate themselves with incense on the day that they were to enter, as well they had to wash themselves, cut their finger and toe nails and shave all of their body hair.

nnnThis practice was even performed on the cult statue where its clothes and makeup were removed, also was sprayed with incense and was offered natron for the cleansing of its (statues) mouth (Watterson). In Genesis we see the very act of Joseph shaving and putting on "clean" clothes before he stood before Pharaoh (Genesis 41:14) where a "Semitic" Hyksos (1786-1570 b.c.) would not have cared. Further evidence is chronicled by Herodotus, a 5th century greek, (cleanly priests and rulers) (7) as well as The Story of Sinuhe: an exile who returned to Egypt after living with Semites shaved before meeting with Sesostris I (1991-1928 B.C.). (8) The next question logically arises "Who did Joseph appear before?"

nnn According to Northwestern's resident Egyptologist, Dr. Charles Aling it was more than likely Sesostris II (1897-1878 B.C.) who was the likely Pharaoh who had the dreams, called for Joseph to interpret and later rewarded him, his son Sesostris III (1878-1843 B.C.) was more than likely the one who dealt with the famine (9). Further support of this theory comes from Paleo-Climatologist Barbara Bell who states that at the time of Sesostris III there was a lengthy famine that hit the region (10).

Generic statue of Sesostris

Joseph's Gifts and Titles

… you shall be over my house, and all my people shall order themselves as you command; only as regards the throne will I be greater than you." And Pharaoh said to Joseph, "Behold, I have set you over all the land of Egypt." Then Pharaoh took his signet ring from his hand and put it on Joseph's hand, and arrayed him in garments of fine linen, and put a gold chain about his neck; and he made him to ride in his second chariot; and they cried before him, "Bow the knee!" Thus he set him over all the land of Egypt. Moreover Pharaoh said to Joseph, "I am Pharaoh, and without your consent no man shall lift up hand or foot in all the land of Egypt." And Pharaoh called Joseph's name Zaph'enath-pane'ah; and he gave him in marriage As'enath, the daughter of Poti'phera priest of On. - Genesis 41: 40-45 (Revised Standard Version) (11)

nmnA particular portion of these previous verses have lead to some disagreements on what the particular interpretation should be. According to Egyptologist Donald Redford the "Gold Chain" of Genesis 41:42 though it is common on tomb wall paintings it's not common among those being inducted into higher office as reward. Not on any of the 32 wall paintings is the chain presented as an induction gift but a reward for services rendered. This belief of Redford's was used by him to deny the historicity of the Biblical account but Dr. Aling has other ideas. It's believed that what is taking place in Genesis 41 are two distinct events, Pharaoh appoints Joseph to office, then he rewards him for his interpretation and its accuracy (12) . The other gifts including the Chariot and his wife Asenath daughter of the priest of On will be discussed here briefly. It was the Hyksos (1786-1570 B.C.) that are known to have introduced the chariot into the land of Egypt but it would not have been uncommon for Government officials to have had chariots such as Joseph was given (2nd chariot) and the Pharaoh obviously having the first (13). Joseph's wife may be insignificant in this story but her father gives us clear clues about the time in which Joseph lived. Since Potiphera (Joseph's father-in-law) was the priest of On we know that On (Heliopolis) was center of the worship of Re clearly putting Joseph into the Middle Kingdom just as the Bible historically affirms and not the Hyksos period of which their major deity was "Set" not "Re." (14)

The Gold Chain

Josephs Titles: Father to the Pharaoh

nnn"So then, it was not you who sent me here, but God. He made me father to Pharaoh, lord of his entire household and ruler of all Egypt - Genesis 45:8 (NIV). (15)

nnnWhat can be determined by these titles? How did Joseph's earlier life help him in his later reign as second in command? As his first title "father to Pharaoh" or "God's Father," not a literal father, suggests he was given the title either as a traditional Elder Statesmen (16) (someone who had served the Pharaoh for an extended period of time and was exceptional at his task) or someone who had done the King a special favor (17) (Joseph interpreting his dream, it coming to pass and developing a plan to protect Egypt from the coming crisis), the latter seems to be the case since Sesostris II died after the seven years of plenty and Joseph was too young to develop an
elder status.

Josephs Titles: Lord of all his Household

nnnThis second title can also be interpreted as "Chief Steward of the King" or "Chief Overseer of his House" there is a clear agricultural connection here not unlike the work that Joseph did before his imprisonment by Potiphar but this time on a grander scale. This title was common during the Middle Kingdom period where William A. Ward cites 20 examples of this title during this period and Franke nineteen (18). Alan Gardiner relays the fact that this title "Chief Steward of the King" was 2nd only to the Vizier, my assumption is that when Sesostris II rewarded Joseph he gave him titles of varying degree and influence. So what were the duties of the Chief Steward? The duties of Chief Steward fall directly into line with what Joseph did in Genesis. The Supervisor of the Royal Graineries (Genesis 41:49), Overseer of Royal Flocks and Herds (Genesis 47:6) as well as Administrator of the Royal Estates. The Steward had duties in tomb construction (perhaps in the construction of Sesostris II's) as well in taxes and the acquiring of supplies from other countries which are told in the 11th Dynasty tomb of Henunu at Deir El Bahri (19).

Josephs Titles: Ruler throughout the land of Egypt

nnnThe final title awarded to Joseph perhaps is the most striking of them all. This title of "ruler" is assumed to be the title Vizier, 2nd in the land only to Pharaoh. William Wards criticism of this title and the many other assumed designations (Overseer of the Graineries of Upper and Lower Egypt, Royal Seal-Bearer, God's Father, Great Steward of the Lord of the Two Lands, Foremost of Courtiers and Chief of the Entire Land ) (20) should not be entirely accepted or rejected but the most credible seems to be Chief of the Entire Land. The contention that these titles do not reflect a pro-Vizier theory for Joseph because he was a foreigner and not a native Egyptian but should not be entirely accepted because prior to Joseph, the title of Vizier was first held by the royal prince. After the 5th Dynasty it was offered to any noble of the Pharaohs choosing. (21)

nnnThe duties of the Vizier are also strikingly similar to those in the career of Joseph that he carried out in the biblical narrative. First of all, Joseph was the head of agricultural production (prior Potiphar duty and current duty under Pharaoh). Secondly, the Vizier would welcome the foreign visitor to the land as well control access of the people to the Pharaoh (Joseph's brothers arrive in Egypt to buy food and meet the Governor/Vizier). The further duties of the Vizier ranged from being the Chief Record Keeper of the Government Record (keeping track of grain output during famine) as well as Government Supervisor, Construction/Industry head and the one who appointed lesser officials to office (22). One interesting fact about the word Vizier is the verse in Genesis 42 where the brothers refer to him as "the man" these two words may seem insignificant but the same words used for "the man" if one letter is changed reads "Vizier." (23)

nnnAs can be seen, Joseph fits perfectly within the Bible as well as Egyptian history in the era in which he is placed. As with any ancient study there are always gaps that need to be filled and question answered but until then the ancient historian can be assured that the Bible, where it touches history, is a solid document. As with anything there will always be critics but, in my limited experience I have noticed that most critics don't have a head problem (academic scholarship and the Bible as consistent historical records) but have great difficulties in acknowledging something higher and greater than themselves, in other words, a heart problem.

The Death of Jacob

nnnThe Khu Sebek Mortuary Stela (ca. 1859 B.C.E.) Khu Sebek, an official under Sesostris III (1878-1843 B.C.E.), wrote about his “unpleasant task” (funeral march?) he had to perform as he journeyed to Canaan. It mentions an attack at Shechem, perhaps in response to Genesis 34 events, and the precise route that Genesis 50 says Jacobs descendants took to bury him in Israel (Bible and Spade Magazine).

The Khu Sebek Mortuary Stela

The Death of Joseph

nnnThe excavations by Manfred Beitak may have uncovered the temporary tomb of Joseph in Egypt. Beitak began his digging at the site in 1966 but the 1984-1987 excavations have unearthed some interesting information about who has been memorialized and buried at Tell El-Dab'a. The evidence includes the retirement home of a high ranking Semitic official (possibly Joseph), an Asiatic/non-Egyptian Cemetary with garden area graves, a 4-room home and the tomb of a high ranking Asiatic official which includes a broken, yellow (Semitic indicator) statue complete with throw stick and mushroom hairstyle (other Semitic indicator's). It has not been determined that this was the temporary tomb of Joseph but whoever it was, lived at the exact time of Joseph, was Semitic and rose in the ranks of Egyptian Government. It is believed that the statue in the tomb was smashed by the Hyksos when they invaded northern Egypt and that Joseph's body was hidden until it could be safely returned to Israel.

Bibliography

Aling, Charles F. Egypt and Bible History, (Baker Book House Company, 1981). (3, 7, 9, 12-14)

Aling, Charles F. The Historicity of the Joseph Story, (Bible and Spade/Associates for Biblical Research, Winter 1996). (10, 16, 18, 19)

Billington, Clyde E. and Aling, Charles F. Readings in Old Testament Archaeology, (Northwestern College, 2000). (5, 17, 20, 22, 23)

Currid, John D. Ancient Egypt and the Old Testament, (Baker Books, 1997). (6)

Hayes, William C. A Papyrus of The Late Middle Kingdom, (John Watkins Company, 1955). (2)

Hoffmeier, James K. Israel in Egypt, (Ox ford University Press, 1996). (1)

Johnson, Paul. The Civilization of Ancient Egypt, (Harper Collins, 1999). (4)

Merrill, Eugene H. Kingdom of Priests, (Baker Book House, 1996). (8)

Steindorff, George and Seele, Keith E. When Egypt Ruled the East, (University of Chicago Press, 1957). (21)

www.bibleontheweb.com/Bible.asp (11, 15)

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The Plagues of Egypt
Modern and Ancient Confrontations

wwwCan we or should we accept The Bible as a random, mythological storybook with quaint beliefs that only a unlearned child in Sunday school could trust? Does Hollywood hold the answers with varying portrayals of the confused, lethargic and unbalanced Messiah from Nazareth asking his mother "Who am I" , "Why is it that I see these things (the reasons for no violence) but no one else does" (NBC) or staring off into space barely able to complete sentences in slow, righteous tones and stares of abnormality, worse yet scenes in which Jesus has strayed so far from the "known" textual identification that at the age of 12 he knows he's the Messiah but to only later question every possible event regarding his purpose at the age of approximately 30 yrs old.

www If Jesus' portrayals aren't difficult enough to stomach for Christianity's people of faith, the Old Testament has been run threw with a few arrows by its own outrageous critics in and outside of tinsel town. Rabbi Sherwin Wine, founder of Humanistic Judaism, said that the Exodus was "Created by priests in Jerusalem" who used "A series of old legends and distorted memories which had no relationship to history" and Old Testament scholars N.P. Lemche and G.W. Ahlstrom said that the Exodus was "Fiction" and that the author was "Concerned with mythology rather than with reporting historical facts."(Price)

www CNN's power mogul, Ted Turner, in the early 1990's was such a critic of the Bible that at the 1990 Humanist Awards Association ..Turner called the Bible "weird" because it recounted a man who suffered and died on the cross so that our sins may be washed away and that he was proud of the fact that the more he "lost" his faith, the better he felt (Reel - Real). Turner then said in the Washington Post that "Christians were poor, uneducated and easy to command," then something strange happened. Turner in cooperation with Beta Films and Lux SpA created a film entitled "ABRAHAM. This story of the Patriarch of the Jewish nation was clearly not a word for word account of the life of the highly regarded nomad. This was obvious in the way in which the men of sodom were asking to meet Lots "new friends." It's clear by the biblical text that sodomy was clearly on their minds not a desire to start a club, but (sigh) we must cater to the politically correct gay community musn't we. Turner knew that this film was not an irrelevant piece of Jewish America or a dismissed foundation of Christianity, but somehow, some way these poor, uneducated souls by some stroke of luck were able to achieve savings accounts, check books and visa cards and Turners "weird" and "strange" foes had buying power, so why not make a buck?

wwwAs Turners pockets bulged with the money of illiterates he continued on his biblical quest for cash with film titles such as 1994's Jacob starring Matthew Modine, Joseph (1995) starring Paul Mercurio and Martin Landau, Samson and Delilah (1996) starring Eric Thal and Elizabeth Hurley, and Moses (1996) starring Ben Kingsley. This brings us to the initial question, Were the incidences immediately before the exodus random or is there scholarly support for the events surrounding the plagues of the Exodus?

wwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwPlague 1

www So the Lord said to Moses: "Pharaoh's heart is hard, he refuses to let the people go. Go to Pharaoh in the morning, when he goes out to the water, and you shall stand by the river's bank to meet him; and the rod which was turned to a serpent you shall take in your hand. And you shall say to him, 'The Lord God of the Hebrews has sent me to you, saying, "Let My people go, that they may serve me in the wilderness"; but indeed, until now you would not hear. Thus says the Lord "By this you shall know that I am the Lord. Behold, I will strike the waters which are in the river with the rod that is in my hand, and they shall be turned to blood and the fish that are in the river shall die, the river shall stink, and the Egyptians will loathe to drink the water of the river." (Tyndale)

www As shown by the text, this was a public display to show the Pharaoh the power of the Hebrew God but was this the only reason for this plague or was the event intended for more than a ruler with a hardened heart? In the book, "Ancient Egypt and the Old Testament" John Currid points out that some of these events pertaining to the 10 plagues of Egypt were an attack against particular deities of Egypt. If this is true, what gods specifically are we addressing?

www Plague #1 was addressed specifically to a Nile god and the biblical writers clearly understood the plagues in this manner (Currid). This god known as Hapi was considered to be the god of vegetation and rebirth (David), this god is also sung of in hymns as the one "who comes to nourish Egypt" or as the one who "bringing sustenance is rich in food and is the creator of every good thing. Hapi is portrayed in the physical form as a bearded man with breasts and a hanging stomach (showing fertility) and this god is even mentioned in the Pyramid Texts as Hapi, which is the divine name of the Nile. The god Hapi and the river itself were synonymous.. by becoming blood, this river was rendered powerless to bring life and fertility to the land, with no fertility the God is rendered powerless (Aling). Currid points out that this "fertility" not only affected the water supply but that it had an obvious affect on the inhabitants of the water. If the Nile has turned to blood the staple of the Egyptian diet , which is fish, would die out. A further point should be made that the Hebrew Gods intent was to show Egypt that only Yahweh can supply Egypts needs and not a useless pagan deity with limited power (Currid).

wwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwPlague 2

www Hekat, the one who helped the Egyptian god Osiris rise from dead and who's earliest cult center (Elephant Nome) (Watterson) is the god of the second plague. What characteristics if any would lead to this conclusion? As Hapi is portrayed as a god of Fertility so does Hekat follow in this line of belief.. Hekat is believed to have assisted as a midwife in the births (the goddess of childbirth) (Aling) and a creator goddess of the human race which follows the belief attributed to her in relation to fertility (Currid), but what does this have to do with the biblical account? The frogs of Exodus 8: 1-6 is a direct attack on Hekats other responsibility and that is the "control" of egypts frog population by protecting the frog eating crocodiles. This attack by the Hebrew God was shown by the over population of frogs, alluding to the inability of Hekat to control the rapid regeneration and it's a simple mockery of her function (Aling). Yahweh was also showing that he, not Hekat, had control over regenerative powers. This theme is the sovereignty of God over fertility, over Egypt, over deities and over all other things (Currid).

wwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwww w ....................... ..Plague 3

www Plagues three and four both involve flying insects as Gods judgment against Egypt. Its believed that the word kinnom of plague 3 is gnats and other possibilities are vermin, lice or maggots (Currid). The purpose of Plague 3 (Exodus 8:16-19) according to Dr. Charles Aling and John Davis was a two-fold attack. The first part brought discomfort to the egyptian population and the second was a mockery of the personal cleanliness of the egyptian priests as some priests would bath 10 times a day.
wwwAccording to A. Rosalie David's book, The Ancient Egyptians, temple entry had a strict code to follow regarding rules of cleanliness. The priests several days before entry to the temple had to purify themselves by chewing natron and fumigating themselves with incense and on the day that they were to enter the temple, they had to wash themselves, cut their finger and toe nails and shave all of their body hair (David).
www This practice was even performed on the cult statue where its clothes and make up was removed it also was sprayed with incense and was offered natron for the cleansing of its (statues) mouth (Watterson). But it must be pointed out that this plague was not directed at a specific god or goddess of Egypt but in a limited sense toward the priests personal hygiene. The only insect associated with the Egyptian gods was the dung beetle, which was associated with the solar cult but not associated in any direct sense with plague 3.

wwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwww ................................Plague 4

wwwThe fourth plague was aimed at the population of egypt bringing discomfort to the land, people and eventual disease. This "swarm" of stinging flies or mosquitoes (arob) (Currid) of Exodus 8:20-32 covered the land with an unprecedented numbers of flies. There was no specific "fly god" of Egypt except perhaps the god, Kheprer, symbolized by the flying beetle (Currid) though this conclusion my be speculative. It should be noted that the "boils with blains" or skin anthrax of plague six could be a direct result of plague four. (Aling)

wwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwww................................ Plague 5

wwwThe attack on the fertility figures of Egypt continue with plague 5. This attack was specifically targeted toward the domesticated animals of the land. The ancient Egyptians had bull cults such as Buchis (sacred bull of Hermonthis) and Neuis (Heliopolis) and bulls were even equated with the Egyptian gods, Ptah and Re. Female deities such as Isis who was depicted wearing cow's horns on her head and Hathor who was given a bovine head for her task of protecting the king were prominant but the most sacred of all the ancient bull "figures" was Apis. (Currid) Only one bull at a time was regarded as Apis. This bull was kept in a sacred stall south of the great Temple of Ptah at Memphis (Watterson). Plague 5 as some critics may assert was simply a random telling of irrelevant events but that is illogical given the passage in Exodus 9:3. These animals listed in this verse run from most important to least important, the order is as follows: cattle (The cattle were associated with agricultural wealth), horses (associated with a military role, chariots), asses (the chief beasts of burden), camels, oxen and the least important being sheep. This fifth of the ten plagues was not directed at any specific gods and there is no evidence of a horse, ass or camel deity. This attack was on the economic security of Egypt. (Aling)

wwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwww...................................Plague 6

wwwThough the sixth plague (possibly skin anthrax) (Aling) for a time was associated with Imhotep, the vizier of Dynasty 3, who was equated with healing and medicine, it wasn't until later that he was deified, much too late for the exodus to be connected with him, but this plague could've been directed at the Egyptian goddess Sekhmet, the lion headed deity of plagues. This goddess was responsible for the epidemics in Egypt but she also had the power to heal those who were visited upon by pestilience. The priests of Sekhmet, one of the oldest medical fraternities in antiquity, included doctors as well as veterinarians (Currid). It should be noted that there may be a connection between plagues 4 and 6. This theory says that the flies of plague 4 bring the disease (boils with blains) that would eventually manifest itself in plague six. (Aling)

wwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwww................................. Plague 7

wwwThe hail and thunderstorms of the seventh plague was an assault upon the crops of Egypt. This crippling of the Egyptian economy whose agricultural activity amazed many was also directed towards the responsible parties of that productivity, namely the Egyptian god Re and the other solar deity Osiris who was directly connected with the grain (Aling). John Currid also points out that Nut (the female representative of the sky and personification of the vault of heaven) may have also been a target of Yahweh as well as Shu (the supporter of the heavens who holds up the sky) and Tefnut (the goddess of moisture). (Currid)

wwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwww................................. Plague 8

wwwThe "sons of robbery" as the Egyptians call the activity of the locusts/grasshoppers is plague 8. This remark shows the deep distain for the arrival of the locusts, this plague again was aimed at the crippling of the Egyptian economy. There is no evidence of any locust deity that was worshipped by the Egyptians (Aling) but Currid points out that there may be a connection between a minor deity known as Senehem, who was the divine protector against ravages of pests, but a problem arises in the sense of why Yahweh would attack such a subordinate deity? The answer may lie in the fact that many deities could have been the target, since in a basic sense they may have the same general function or equation. This conclusion may be supported by the Tanis Steele from the reign of Taharqa (Dynasty 25) which speaks of a "fine field, which the gods protected against the grasshoppers." (Currid)

wwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwww................................... Plague 9

wwwAs darkness filled the land of Egypt heralding the 9th plague it was probably the intent of Yahweh to confront the chief deity of Egypt, Amon-Re. This Sun God's "rising" in the east symbolized new life and resurrection (Currid). Papyrus Boulaq 17 (Hymn to Amon-Re) reflects the universal reverance for this Chief God:

www The Goodly beloved you to whom the gods give you praise, Who made what is below and what is above, Who illuminates the Two Lands And crosses the heavens in peace: The King of Upper and Lower Egypt: Ra, the triumphant Chief of the Two Lands, Great of strength, lord of reverance, The chief one, who made the entire earth. More distinguished that any (other) god... (Currid)

www This reverance for Amon-Re quickly disappeared once the Hebrew God darkened the sun, which rendered Re powerless against Yahweh. This Egyptian god (sun) which sank into the west and didn't appear again for 3 days "became" death, judgment and hopelessness for the Egyptians. The people of Egypt had experienced eclipses before so that was no great worry and cloud cover was rare, so this pervasive darkness must've been a shock to a people waiting for a once powerful god to "rise" again.

wwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwww ....................................Plague 10

www In order to make the case for a 10th plague, its important to provide some known historical background of a few players in this drama namely Amenhotep II, the Pharaoh of the Exodus and his family. Interesting questions arise such as, Why did Amenhotep II, who reigned 35 years, cease his campaigns after 1444? Amenhotep II bragged profusely of his military abilities so why not continue those "exploits" throughout your entire reign? As we know by history, Amenhotep II's campaigns were in 1450, 1446 and the last one which was minor was in 1444 (Palestine). Could it be that this rulers 600 chariots could've been eliminated? If so, how ?
www If this was truly the Pharaoh of the exodus and the events depicted in the Bible are true, then he would not have an army after 1446 and a limited force in 1444. If you have no army, you have no chariots and have no abilities to campaign. Now to real reason for all of this dialogue. This 10th and last plague was aimed specifically at the living god, the Pharaoh, this supposedly divine Pharaoh could not even protect his own son. Egyptologist Dr. Charles Aling points out that "Amenhotep II's son Webensenu never lived to marrying age and that Thutmosis IV, the younger brother of Webensenu, gained the title of the kings eldest son." (paraphrase) (Aling) The 10th plague may have been the direct reason for this burial. Another reason that may give more ground to this assertion is the strange body wrapped in sheep skin that was uncovered. Could this have been an attempt to resurrected a first born son killed in this final attack by the Hebrew God? The Old Testament says plainly that it was only through the blood of a lamb on the mantel of the door posts that the first born of the hebrews were saved during the passover of the angel of death. Could a member of this individuals family have wrapped this 1st born egyptian in a sheep skin in a vain attempt at resuscitation? It is speculative, but interesting since this is the "only" mummy ever found wrapped in this way and this mummy looked like it died in mid-scream.
www Though not all of the plagues were aimed at specific Egyptian deities its interesting that the authors mentioned above "never" mention Sobek, the water god who received worship as a patron divinity in towns nor the harvest-god, Min of Copis (Steindorff). So why weren't these deities addressed by Charles Aling or John Currid? Because Sobek and Min though similar, are not fitting the profile as would Hapi, Re, Osiris and Senehem. These afforementioned Gods were specifically targeted, they were not random attacks nor were they based upon myths but upon the known beliefs of the Egyptians and their view of their Gods abilities and actions. The Biblical text was never written to present vague indicators as some critics would suggest. It should never be assumed that the authors intent was a conspiracy of exaggeration or a tendency to stretch history to their own persuasion but to simply present the information in its purest and most basic form and let the reader decide. Investigation has never been a fear of a biblical author, and in this fact we can take comfort.

wwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwBibliography

wwwwwwwwwAling, Charles F. Egypt and Bible History (Michigan: Baker Book House, 1981)

wwwwwwwwwCurrid, John. Ancient Egypt and the Old Testament (Michigan: Baker Book House Co. 1997)

wwwwwwwwwDavid, A. Rosalie. The Ancient Egyptians (England: Routledge, Kegan and Paul, 1982)

wwwwwwwwwNBC. Mary, Mother of Jesus, (California: 1999)

wwwwwwwwwPrice, Randall. The Stones Cry Out, (Oregon: Harvest House, 1997)

wwwwwwwwwAmerican Portrait Films. Hollywood: Lights, Camera, Blasphemy (Ohio:1995)

wwwwwwwwwSteindorff, George and Seele, Keith. When Egypt Ruled the East (Illinois: Univ. of Chicago Press)

wwwwwwwwwWatterson, Barbara. The Gods of Ancient Egypt, (New York: Facts on File Publications,1984)

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Of Exuberant Imagination?
The Search for Saul, David and Solomon

by Rick Dack, Founder and Director of Hollywood vs. The Bible Int'l

"To many people it seems remarkable that David and Solomon still remain unknown outside the Old Testament or literary sources derived directly from it. No extra-Biblical inscription, either from Palestine or from a neighboring country, has yet been found to contain a reference to them." - Kathleen Kenyon, former Jericho and Jerusalem Excavator (Price 1997, 162)

"Similarly, the David of the Bible, David the King, is not a historical figure." - Neils Peter Lemche (Biblical Archaeology Review, July/August 1997, 40)

. .."of exuberant imagination." J.A. Montgomery, in The International Critical Commentary, labeled the passages 1 Kings 6:20-22, 30 and 2 Chronicles 3:4-7 as products of myth concerning the inside of Solomon's Temple as being pure gold. - (Bible and Spade, Autumn 1994, 97).

"Tom, I don't care in the least whether Solomon ever existed. I'm probably more of a disbeliever than you. I don't really care about the traditions. I don't believe any of the myths." -William Dever addressing Thomas Thompson. (Biblical Archaeology Review, July/August 1997, 33).

"I want to be sure you understand me about David and Solomon. For me, as an archaeologist, it's simple. I don't have to argue whether this Solomon existed. I do have to argue that somebody built these gates (at Gezer, Megiddo and Hazor) in a government that was highly centralized, and for me that means statehood. In other words its Solomon by another name. I don't care. I'm talking about centralization and the rise of the state. And I use the term Solomon as a kind of convenient short hand. And so therefore I would say a Solomon of sort existed but not necessarily the Solomon of fable." - William Dever, (Biblical Archaeology Review, July/August 1997, 40).

mmFor a number of years, the critics of the Bible have invaded our literature, television, and other forms of media. Unfortunately, many people of conviction, including students in Christian institutions, have fallen prey to perceived literature and films that must be pro-Bible just by the very nature of their publicized name. I have no problem with the concept of all ideas being expressed, but there must be an alternative to information for the student to consume that will compliment rather than offend and confuse the person of faith. Fortunately, there are publications such as Artifax magazine and Bible and Spade, but these young publications are not allowed into libraries because they do not fit all the standards necessary for indexing.
mmA perfect of example of this problem happened at Northwestern College in St. Paul, Minnesota, where a student denied the very existence of Jericho and its destruction. I was shocked at hearing this student rail against the biblical city that was destroyed after the Exodus. Even more unbelievable, is knowing that a year and a half prior to this, Dr. Bryant Wood spoke at Northwestern College where he supported the biblical city's historical and archaeological merits. The next logical question arises: Is the Bible of exuberant imagination (see title and quote above), or can it be trusted?
mmThis question has been exhausted by minimalist and maximalist scholars for years, and one cannot help but logically make the leap with the following set of circumstances. If the Exodus never happened, then Jericho must be a myth, and the Hebrews never escaped the bondage initially started by the Hyksos. If this scenario is true, then there is no basis for Judges and the beginning of the nation of Israel is pure fancy. Also, there is no need for Kings if you have no Kingdom. As will be seen, there is ample evidence for Kings Saul, David and Solomon, much to the dismay of critics who either choose not to believe, have not researched the evidence, or have pre-conceived ideas about early Israel.
mm

King Saul in Archaeology

Nahash the Ammonite

1 Nahash the Ammonite went up and besieged Jabesh Gilead. And all the men of Jabesh said to him, "Make a treaty with us, and we will be subject to you." - 1 Samuel 11:1 (http://bible.gospelcom.net/bible)

mmPrior to Saul's proclamation as King (at Gilgal) by his people, Nahash the Ammonite laid siege against Jabesh Gilead with his marauders. The people of Jabesh Gilead tried to make peace with Nahash (Serpent), he refused, Saul was contacted at Gibeah, and he eventually won the day by attacking the Ammonites with his three companies until the heat of the day (1 Samuel 11:11). This act not only assured Saul's place as Israel's first King but also showed his competency as a great military leader who could lead his people to victory (Life Application Bible, 1993, 462). Jabesh Gilead (dry heap of stones) is located 19 miles southeast of Beth Shan and 12 miles north of the Jabbock River (Bible and Spade, Winter 1982, 13). When King Saul and his sons were slain by the Philistines and his body was placed at Beth Shan, it was the men of Jabesh-Gilead who gave them a proper burial.

Saul and the Witch of Endor

3 Now Samuel was dead, and all Israel had mourned for him and buried him in his own town of Ramah. Saul had expelled the mediums and spiritists from the land. 4 The Philistines assembled and came and set up camp at Shunem, while Saul gathered all the Israelites and set up camp at Gilboa. 5 When Saul saw the Philistine army, he was afraid; terror filled his heart. 6 He inquired of the Lord , but the Lord did not answer him by dreams or Urim or prophets. 7 Saul then said to his attendants, "Find me a woman who is a medium, so I may go and inquire of her." "There is one in Endor," they said. 8 So Saul disguised himself, putting on other clothes, and at night he and two men went to the woman. "Consult a spirit for me," he said, "and bring up for me the one I name." 9 But the woman said to him, "Surely you know what Saul has done. He has cut off the mediums and spiritists from the land. Why have you set a trap for my life to bring about my death?" 10 Saul swore to her by the Lord , "As surely as the Lord lives, you will not be punished for this." 11 Then the woman asked, "Whom shall I bring up for you?" "Bring up Samuel," he said. 12 When the woman saw Samuel, she cried out at the top of her voice and said to Saul, "Why have you deceived me? You are Saul!" 13 The king said to her, "Don't be afraid. What do you see?" The woman said, "I see a spirit [1] coming up out of the ground." 14 "What does he look like?" he asked. "An old man wearing a robe is coming up," she said. Then Saul knew it was Samuel, and he bowed down and prostrated himself with his face to the ground. - 1 Samuel 28:3-14 (http://bible.gospelcom.net/bible)

mmAfter a careful examination of the text, there are some interesting points that should be touched upon. 1 Samuel 28:11 speaks of the witch wanting to bring up the person who she is trying to contact. The Ob (pronounced "Ov") pit was more than likely what she was using. The pit was 6 feet wide, 6 feet deep, and was used for conjuring spirits. Offerings of blood, milk, and honey were dropped into the pit, and the conjurer would recite spells and incantations over the concoction in order to lure the spirits up out of the hole. The reason that a witch would use the pit was to ask questions of the deceased as seen in the Old Testament story in which Saul contacted the prophet Samuel. The description of the Ob pit is mentioned in Hittite literature, but there is no indication within the text that the Witch of Endor was a Hittite (Old Testament Archaeology video, Northwestern College, 2000).

The Death of Saul and the Philistines at Beth Shan

1 Now the Philistines fought against Israel; the Israelites fled before them, and many fell slain on Mount Gilboa. 2 The Philistines pressed hard after Saul and his sons, and they killed his sons Jonathan, Abinadab and Malki-Shua. 3 The fighting grew fierce around Saul, and when the archers overtook him, they wounded him. 4 Saul said to his armor-bearer, "Draw your sword and run me through, or these uncircumcised fellows will come and abuse me." But his armor-bearer was terrified and would not do it; so Saul took his own sword and fell on it. 5 When the armor-bearer saw that Saul was dead, he too fell on his sword and died. 6 So Saul and his three sons died, and all his house died together. 7 When all the Israelites in the valley saw that the army had fled and that Saul and his sons had died, they abandoned their towns and fled. And the Philistines came and occupied them. 8 The next day, when the Philistines came to strip the dead, they found Saul and his sons fallen on Mount Gilboa. 9 They stripped him and took his head and his armor, and sent messengers throughout the land of the Philistines to proclaim the news among their idols and their people. 10 They put his armor in the temple of their gods and hung up his head in the temple of Dagon - 1 Chronicles 10: 1-10 (http://bible.gospelcom.net/bible)

7 When the Israelites along the valley and those across the Jordan saw that the Israelite army had fled and that Saul and his sons had died, they abandoned their towns and fled. And the Philistines came and occupied them. 8 The next day, when the Philistines came to strip the dead, they found Saul and his three sons fallen on Mount Gilboa. 9 They cut off his head and stripped off his armor, and they sent messengers throughout the land of the Philistines to proclaim the news in the temple of their idols and among their people. 10 They put his armor in the temple of the Ashtoreths and fastened his body to the wall of Beth Shan. - 1 Samuel 31:7-10 (http://bible.gospelcom.net/bible)

mmThe excavations by Amahai Mazar at Beth Shan have uncovered Philistine pottery, a strainer jug, a fertility goddess statue, a Philistine bowl which were all Aegean in their styles (Archaeology and Biblical Research, Spring 1992, 63). In addition, a strong Egyptian presence from 1450 - 1150 B.C. was uncovered according to area supervisor Bob Mullins (Price 1997, 147). Its earliest level of occupation dates to about 3000 B.C., and the latest evidence found is from the Roman period which includes inscriptions, pottery, and an amphitheatre. Beth Shan is located between the Jordan and Jezreel Valleys (Blaiklock, 1983, 100).
mm After Saul's death, his body and the bodies of his sons (except Ishbosheth's, who would reign two years before David's rule) were placed on the wall at Beth Shan, his armor was placed at an Ashtoreth Temple, and his head was placed in a Temple of Dagon. A problem arose with this portion of Scripture because both Temples could not have existed at the same time. It was known that a Philistine Temple (of the god Dagon) and a Canaanite Temple (the goddess Astoreth) could not be present within the same level of occupation because the Canaanites were an earlier people and had gods of opposing peoples. The answer to this riddle is the belief that the Philistines more than likely absorbed the Canaanite gods into their beliefs and thus kept the Temple as an adjoining part of their Dagon Temple. In 1930, Alan Rowe uncovered the Philistine and Canaanite Temple in the same level of occupation at Beth Shan. This discovery once again proves that the Bible is textually and archaeologically accurate (Bible and Spade, Winter 1972, 9-11).

King David and Archaeology

Slingstones

Then he took his staff in his hand; and he chose for himself five smooth stones from the brook, and put them in a shepherds bag, in a pouch he had, and his sling was in his hand. And he drew near the Philistine. - 1 Samuel 17:40 (http://bible.gospelcom.net/bible)

Then David put his hand in his bag and took out a stone; and he slung it and struck the Philistine in the
forehead, so that the stone sunk deep in his forehead, and fell on his face to the earth. - 1 Samuel 17:49 (http://bible.gospelcom.net/bible)

mmAt one of the proposed sites of biblical Ai (Khirbet El-Maqatir), sling stones were recovered by the Bryant Wood excavation team. In most Churches, it is assumed that the sling stones that David used were mere pebbles in a stream that he placed into his sling to kill Goliath, but the Maqatir stones that were discovered were between the size of a softball and a baseball. Since David fought off lions and bears that went after his flocks (1 Sam. 17:34-37), it seems logical that the projectile had to be larger than a marble or a small golf ball. A good slinger can hurl stones up to a quarter mile (440 yards) at about 60 miles an hour and the best slingers, according to Grace Kellner, Artifacts Registrar at Maqatir, were left-handed Benjamites (see Judges 20 and 1 Chronicles 12:2) (Bible and Spade, Winter 1998, 2, 3).
mmE. M. Blaiklock writes that the first slings were probably made of stag antlers that were carved into the shape of a horse's head. The stone was placed within the jaws of the head and discharged with an over-arm jerk. At the site of Tell Halaf, a relief was discovered that depicts a slinger with the leather-pouched weapon in which the stone was placed inside the pouch, which was pulled tight to form a bag, and at the proper moment, one of the leather straps was released to throw the projectile (Blaiklock, 1983, 418).

A Modern Giant

1 Now the Philistines gathered their forces for war and assembled at Socoh in Judah. They pitched camp at Ephes Dammim, between Socoh and Azekah. 2 Saul and the Israelites assembled and camped in the Valley of Elah and drew up their battle line to meet the Philistines. 3 The Philistines occupied one hill and the Israelites another, with the valley between them. 4 A champion named Goliath, who was from Gath, came out of the Philistine camp. He was over nine feet [1] tall. 5 He had a bronze helmet on his head and wore a coat of scale armor of bronze weighing five thousand shekels [2] ; 6 on his legs he wore bronze greaves, and a bronze javelin was slung on his back. 7 His spear shaft was like a weaver's rod, and its iron point weighed six hundred shekels. [3] His shield bearer went ahead of him. - 1 Samuel 17: 1-7 (http://bible.gospelcom.net/bible)

mmAssigned to the fabled stories of The Brothers Grimm, giants took on mythical status until the stunning medical abnormality known as Robert Wadlow who, at his tallest, reached 8'11". Mr. Wadlow was at a normal height and weight at birth, but pituitary problems led to his outsized growth. By the age of eight, he was six feet tall; by the age of 16, he stood nearly 7'10" and weighed over 370 pounds (http://www.who2.com/robertwadlow.html). Born in Alton, Illinois in 1918, Robert Pershing Wadlow tried to maintain a normal life but was unsuccessful. At age 18, he was named the tallest Boy Scout at seven feet, four inches and later in life was hired by a shoe company to advertise its products. Wadlow, as with most individuals of abnormal stature, was plagued with Acromegaly (a pituitary eye disease) that stayed with Wadlow until his death in 1940 at the age of 22 (www.altonmuseum.com/robertwadlow.htm). Acromegaly, according to an Israeli neurologist, may have assisted David in his confrontation with Goliath.

Acromegaly and Armor

49 Reaching into his bag and taking out a stone, he slung it and struck the Philistine on the forehead. The stone sank into his forehead, and he fell facedown on the ground. 50 So David triumphed over the Philistine with a sling and a stone; without a sword in his hand he struck down the Philistine and killed him. - 1 Samuel 17:48-51 (http://bible.gospelcom.net/bible)

mmGoliath's words were a bit too hasty according to Dr. Vladimir Berginer, Israeli Neurologist, who believes that Goliath suffered from a hormonal disease that not only contributed to his enormous size and strength but also diminished his eyesight. This pituitary disease known as acromegaly presses on the optic nerve thus causing vision problems. Berginer's theory is that David hit Goliath with the stone, knocking him out, and then using the sword, he killed the giant (Artifax, http://www.msn.fullfeed.com/~scribe/digest20002.htm).
mm According to E.M. Blaiklock, Goliath's helmet (of Aegaen origin) may have also limited the giants ability to get a proper view of David, son of Jesse. With this type of armor, it is best to keep your head down and use the visor, but this failure to do so gave David an opportunity to strike with accuracy (Blaiklock, 1983, 218).

Ancient Giants (The Anakim and Pelasgian's)

1 Hear, O Israel. You are now about to cross the Jordan to go in and dispossess nations greater and stronger than you, with large cities that have walls up to the sky. 2 The people are strong and tall-Anakites! You know about them and have heard it said: "Who can stand up against the Anakites?" 3 But be assured today that the LORD your God is the one who goes across ahead of you like a devouring fire. He will destroy them; he will subdue them before you. And you will drive them out and annihilate them quickly, as the LORD has promised you. - Deuteronomy 9: 1-3 (http://bible.gospelcom.net/bible)

mmEight hundred years before King Saul, the descendants of Anak (Anakim) were mentioned on Egyptian Execration Texts. These contemporaries of Joseph are mentioned as the rulers of the Anakim Giants and their names were Eram, Obbe Ya'meeyu, Akiram, and "all of their men." It is believed that the Anakim, some four hundred years later, joined with the Philistines who eventually became a scourge to the Israelis.

1 Next we turned and went up along the road toward Bashan, and Og king of Bashan with his whole army marched out to meet us in battle at Edrei. 2 The LORD said to me, "Do not be afraid of him, for I have handed him over to you with his whole army and his land. Do to him what you did to Sihon king of the Amorites, who reigned in Heshbon." 11(Only Og king of Bashan was left of the remnant of the Rephaites. His bed [3] was made of iron and was more than thirteen feet long and six feet wide. [4] It is still in Rabbah of the Ammonites.) - Deuteronomy 3: 1, 2, 11 (http://bible.gospelcom.net/bible)

mmThe giant known as King Og was defeated by the Israelites in Bashan at the Battle of Edrei. Bashan's earliest occupation was between 3000 and 2000 B.C. An Egyptian document from the time of Thutmosis III and the Amarna letters reveals a strong agricultural settlement which was eventually taken over by the Israelites (Blaiklock, 1983, 93). It is believed that the King's bed was made in Raboth-Ammon (modern day Amman, Jordan) and that he was a descendant of the Zamzummim (Rephaim) who were also giants. Another group, known as the Pelasgians were quite possibly the Philistines or at least a close relation. Greek legend says that the Pelasgians had giants that lived among them (Old Testament Archaeology video, Northwestern College, 2000).

Philistine Origins

1 Now the Philistines gathered their forces for war and assembled at Socoh in Judah. - 1 Samuel 17:1 (http://bible.gospelcom.net/bible)

mmRecently, there has been some question as to the origin of the Philistines. Is there evidence for their existence? Is it possible that they came from the Greek world? According to Joseph Free, the Philistines entered Palestine in the twelfth century and attacked the Egyptians during the reign of Ramses III. Dr. Charles Aling (Northwestern College, St. Paul MN) believes that the Philistines came from Caphtor (Crete) and settled on the coast of Palestine, but there is no indication that Caphtor was the definitive location of their true origin (Aling, 1981, 120).
mm Dr. Aling states that there are many indicators that point to the Philistines (Sea Peoples) as having an Aegean origin. These proofs include pottery similarities (geometric patterns, double axe patterns), the words of the Philistines (Teren = Lord of the Philistines and Helmet = Kobah), a possible relationship to a day's battle in which one man fights another as representatives of each side of the conflict (related to Homer's Iliad), a plate that depicts a Greek warrior with armor similar to what Goliath wore, Philistine Temple architecture that is strikingly similar to Greek design, and the famous Phaistos Disk, discovered in 1903 on Crete, that shows the plumed headdress of the Philistines multiple times. At Medinet Habu (Thebes, Egypt), the plumed helmet of the Philistines can be seen in a carving that was uncovered by the Chicago Oriental Institute in the 1930's ((Old Testament Archaeology video, Northwestern College, 2000. Aling, 1981, 119).
mm The Philistine city of Ekron (Tell Miqne) has also yielded a connection to the Greek world in its Mycanaean pottery which contains Aegean motifs (the first phase of Philistine occupation). Tell Miqne's 1996 excavation led to the discoveries of a golden cobra headdress, which had its origin as part of an Egyptian deity statuette, an inscription that positively identifies the site as Ekron, and the name of one of its kings (Padi), uncovered in the summer of 1997 (Price, 1997, 222-227. Bible and Spade, Winter 1998, 26).

King David Inscriptions

And they anointed David king over Israel. David was thirty years old when he began to reign - 2 Samuel 5: 3, 4 (http://bible.gospelcom.net/bible)

mmSince the death of Kathleen Kenyon in the late 1970's, conservative scholars have desired to know whether Kenyon was correct in her belief that "…David and Solomon still remain unknown outside the Old Testament or literary sources ..." Even more puzzling to me is the artifact known as the Moabite Stone and its date of translation because many believe that the Tel Dan inscription (discovered in 1993) was the first reference to David outside the Old Testament. How can this be if the Moabite Stone was discovered first? As will be seen, the Tel Dan Inscription is probably the first complete inscription of King David that was discovered, not the first unearthed.
mm The first excavation at Tel Dan was conducted by Avraham Biran in 1966. Since that time, Biran has uncovered a bowl inscription that read "of the butchers," a probable reference to the cooks of the butchers from the Dan Royal Family. Another inscription reads, "belonging to Amotz (Amos)," not the biblical Amos. In addition to the excavation of a seventh-century B.C. building, an inscription relating to Baal, a "God who is in Dan" inscription verifying the site as Dan, an inscription directly related to the Israeli King Zechariah, and a city-gate complex were all unearthed. The Tel Dan inscription was discovered near this city-gate complex close to a recently discovered wall on the east side. This artifact was discovered by Gila Cook, who saw it protruding up from the ground and would have missed it if the sun had not highlighted the script which reads on line 8, "the king of Israel. And (I) slew (…the kin-) and on line 9 "g of the House of David. And I put…" obviously refers to the The House of David and the Kingship. (Biblical Archaeology Review, March/April 1994, 26-39). The Tel Dan Inscription is dated to the time of Hazael, an Aramean usurper (Price 1997, 169).

mm The story of the Moabite (Mesha) Stone reads like a novel of adventure. The stone tells the story of King Mesha of Moab and how his country had been oppressed by the Israelites for forty years from the time of Omri (ca. 876-869 B.C.) to Jehoram (ca. 849-842 B.C.), his insurrection against Israel and his war against the Edomites. The Moabite Stone was discovered in 1868 at Dibon, Jordan by a missionary named F.A. Klein. It was considered to be a good-luck amulet by the locals, and the stone was broken apart and sold. Fortunately, an impression was made of the artifact before its destruction and Clermont-Ganneau collected the remaining pieces and reconstructed it in 1873. The Moabite Stone's final resting place is in the Louvre in Paris (Schoville, 1978, 485). The portion that speaks of King David reads, "House of D…." The French scholar Andre LeMaire, who has provided further support in identifying the Tel Dan Inscription, believes that the Moabite Stone does contain the name David on line 31, a partially destroyed part of the inscription. Other biblical figures mentioned on the stone are Ahab, Omri and, of course, Mesha (Price, 1997, 171-172).
mm The "Heights of David" inscription, found in Egypt, may be a third reference to the Israeli King. Egyptologist Kenneth Kitchen of the University of Liverpool believes that the biblical Pharaoh Shishak (Sheshonq) may have carved David's name into the wall of the Amun Temple at Karnak, a practice that was developed by Thutmosis III during his reign to show his dominion over what he had conquered. Shishak's success over his many enemies, including Israel, is represented by over one hundred place-names on the Amun Temple wall. The name David is similar to an Ethiopian ruler's inscription from Axum that cites Psalms 19 and 65 in which the word Davit is used. The Davit of the Ethiopian inscription is the same as on the Temple of Amun wall, says Kitchen (Biblical Archaeology Review, January/February 1999, 34 - 35).

Jerusalem Archaeology

6 The king and his men marched to Jerusalem to attack the Jebusites, who lived there. The Jebusites said to David, "You will not get in here; even the blind and the lame can ward you off." They thought, "David cannot get in here." 7 Nevertheless, David captured the fortress of Zion, the City of David. 8 On that day, David said, "Anyone who conquers the Jebusites will have to use the water shaft [1] to reach those 'lame and blind' who are David's enemies. [2] " That is why they say, "The 'blind and lame' will not enter the palace." 9 David then took up residence in the fortress and called it the City of David. He built up the area around it, from the supporting terraces [3] inward. 10 And he became more and more powerful, because the LORD God Almighty was with him. - 2 Samuel 5:6-10 (http://bible.gospelcom.net/bible)

The Walls of Jerusalem and the Stone Stepped Structure

mmExcavations by Kathleen Kenyon (1961-1967) revealed that Jerusalem was an elongated triangle enclosing an area of about nine acres. Kenyon also states that there is no indication that David ever expanded his city but simply repaired it. The expansion of the city would resume later during the time of Solomon where he would expand the north to include the Temple (Bible and Spade Autumn 1972, 99-105). A fifty-foot stack of rocks discovered in Jerusalem could be where David built his Fortress of Zion. Archaeologist Eilat Mazar believes that David's Royal Palace may lie just north of this stone structure (Price, 1997, 165).

Warren's Shaft

1 All Israel came together to David at Hebron and said, "We are your own flesh and blood. 2 In the past, even while Saul was king, you were the one who led Israel on their military campaigns. And the Lord your God said to you, 'You will shepherd my people Israel, and you will become their ruler.' " 3 When all the elders of Israel had come to King David at Hebron, he made a compact with them at Hebron before the Lord , and they anointed David king over Israel, as the Lord had promised through Samuel. 4 David and all the Israelites marched to Jerusalem (that is, Jebus). The Jebusites who lived there 5 said to David, "You will not get in here." Nevertheless, David captured the fortress of Zion, the City of David. 6 David had said, "Whoever leads the attack on the Jebusites will become commander-in-chief." Joab son of Zeruiah went up first, and so he received the command. 7 David then took up residence in the fortress, and so it was called the City of David. 8 He built up the city around it, from the supporting terraces [1] to the surrounding wall, while Joab restored the rest of the city. 9 And David became more and more powerful, because the Lord Almighty was with him. - 1 Chronicles 11: 1-7 (http://bible.gospelcom.net/bible)

"Whoever climbs up by the way of the water shaft and defeats the Jebusites…he shall be chief and captain." - 2 Samuel 5:8 (http://bible.gospelcom.net/bible)

mmFor years, scholars have debated these passages trying to figure out how Joab entered the city of Jerusalem. In 1867, Captain Charles Warren discovered a shaft that was not a man-made creation but a sink hole or an erosion shaft caused by water percolating through limestone and this one of two ways that entrance to city was possible. The first entrance would've been via the Gihon Spring and up Warrens Shaft and the second would have been through a tunnel on the eastern slope (Brantley, 1995, 125). Though the shaft is a naturally occurring opening, it is believed that the Jebusites used this as a means to acquire clean water and one can assume they did not know about the opening that Joab entered to take the city.

David's Defensive Tower

Once David became King, he built up defensive towers in order to protect his city. One of these towers was discovered in 1997 by Ronnie Reich who uncovered a large stone structure in the southern part of Jerusalem (Price, 1997, 165). King David's Political Cabinet 15 David reigned over all Israel, doing what was just and right for all his people. - 2 Samuel 8:15 (http://bible.gospelcom.net/bible)

mmIn 1973, a Ph'D candidate by the name of Tryvgge N.D. Mettinger gave his dissertation on the names of King David and Solomon's cabinet members. The method known as Prosopography was used to uncover the meanings and duties of David's and Solomon's high state officials. Dr Mettinger's used the writings of 2 Samuel 8, 15, 29; 1 Kings 4, 5, 9, 19 and 1 Chronicles 27 to complete his lengthy project. Mazhkir was the first title that he chose to tackle. Mazhkir or the Recorder (Secretary of State) was responsible for handling communications between the King and his subjects. He was also responsible for the ceremonial at royal audiences and received vassals as well as foreign envoys to the Kings court (Chief of the Protocol). The second title investigated was the Sopher or Scribe/Royal Secretary. The Sopher was responsible for foreign and domestic correspondence and keeping the Royal annals. David's royal secretary, Seraiah, might have been an Egyptian. His name means "Royal letter writer of Pharaoh." The Scribe kept the archives in the State Secretariate (Scribes chambers) which was located in the Kings Palace. The third title was an addition by King David (2 Samuel 29:23-26) and it was called Al-Hammas meaning "Over the Tribute" (In charge of the forced levy). This third office was created by David after he defeated the Canaanites which probably had its origin with the Canaanites. The forced levy was of two types in which the Canaanites were conscripted to permanent levy (1 Kings 9:20,21) while the northern Israelites were conscripted to periodic/temporary levy's (1 Kings 5: 13-16) (Bible and Spade, Autumn 1973, 115-118).

Solomon's additions to his cabinet

mmNot meaning to jump ahead of myself, it may be appropriate at this time to briefly explain Solomon's contribution to his administration. Solomon created three new offices (al-hannitstsabim, reeh hammelek, and the al-habbaith) in which to govern duty, create an advisory position as well as appoint a property overseer. The al-hannitstsabim or "Over the Officers" (Superintendent of Regional Governors) was created by Solomon once he created the 12 administrative districts to govern taxes. The Superintendent was the head over these 12 districts. (I Kings 4:22-27). The reeh hammelek or "Principal Officer and the King's Friend" was a counselor to the King and the al-habbaith meaning "Over the Household" (Comptroller of the Household) was an Administer of the Royal Estate like Joseph. The steward of David's property was responsible for the Royal trade (1 Kings 10:28) and for mining activities (Bible and Spade, Autumn 1973, 115-118).

The Pool of Gibeon and Archaeology

13 Joab son of Zeruiah and David's men went out and met them at the pool of Gibeon. One group sat down on one side of the pool and one group on the other side. - 2 Samuel 2:13 (http://bible.gospelcom.net/bible)

mmThe site of Gibeon was excavated by James Pritchard of the University of Pennsylvania in cooperation with the Church Divinity School between 1956 and 1962. The site known as Gibeon (Al-Jib) is approximately 9 miles north of Jerusalem and its earliest record of habitation is about 3100 B.C. that encapsulated the entire Bronze Age up to 1200 B.C. The name Gibeon was uncovered at the site twenty five times. Also discovered were imported wares, a royal seal and storage jar handles (lllustrated Bible Dictionary, 1998, 559). The Pool of Gibeon, where David was victorious, measures 36 feet in diameter and 30 feet deep (Blaiklock, 1983, 214).

David's Palace at Jerusalem

2 One evening David got up from his bed and walked around on the roof of the palace. - 2 Samuel 11:2 (http://bible.gospelcom.net/bible)

mmIt is believed that David's Palace consisted of a series of terraces filled with stones which faced eastward. Though no architectural remains firmly attributed to David's Palace have yet been found, approximately thirty-four ancient Capitals have been found in Israel amongst other public buildings so why would David's residence be any different? At Shiloh's area G, excavators have uncovered square hewn stones probably cut by Phoenicians that are similar to the ones found by Kathleen Kenyon at David's proposed dwelling. In Kenyon's excavation of area H, a casemate wall was found, a casemate wall is a divider with square compartments built into it. This wall is dated to the general time period (tenth century B.C.) in which David lived. The wall protected the Palace from the north (Bible and Spade, Winter 1997, 16-17).

The width and breadth of David's Kingdom

3 Moreover, David fought Hadadezer king of Zobah, as far as Hamath, when he went to establish his control along the Euphrates River... 6 He put garrisons in the Aramean kingdom of Damascus, and the Arameans became subject to him and brought tribute. The LORD gave David victory everywhere he went. - 1 Chronicles 18: 3, 6 (http://bible.gospelcom.net/bible)

mmCritics such as Hermann Guthe and Hugo Winckler have attempted in years past to say that David's kingdom, as described in the Bible, was smaller that what is written but archaeology has once again proven the critics wrong. The area of criticism revolves around 1 Chronicles 18:3, 6 in which the Bible says that David's empire included the area north of Damascus and Zobah (the land of King Hadadezer) as part of his kingdom. Archaeology has shown that Zobah lies north and not south of Damascus which is what the critics asserted. William F Albright supports this conclusion in saying that "It follows that the biblical narrative is perfectly reasonable geographically…David's empire then extended from the Gulf of Aqaba in the south to the regions of Hums in the north, and it remained, at least nominally, in Solomon's hands until his death or shortly afterward" (Free, 1992, 136).

King David's Tomb?

10 Then David rested with his fathers and was buried in the City of David. 11 He had reigned forty years over Israel- seven years in Hebron and thirty-three in Jerusalem. - 1 Kings 2:10, 11 (http://bible.gospelcom.net/bible)

mmThe tombs known as T1-T8 were excavated by Raymond Weill between 1913 and 1914. In 1924, the last tomb (T9) was discovered and it is believed by Hershel Shanks, editor of Biblical Archaeology Review, that David's tomb location may have been discovered. The tomb that Shanks believes may be the tomb of David is T1. The attributes of the tomb include a long tunnel (52 ½ feet long, 8 feet wide and 13 feet high) with a lower level, a back wall with a deep impression (similar to later 1st temple tombs that were discovered) where a body, sarcophagus/burial container could be placed (4 ft wide, 6 ft long) and steps leading down to another entrance where presumably an additional person wanted to be laid to rest. T1 rests on a mound that is surrounded by the lesser tombs (T2-T9). Mr. Shanks goes on to lay out his argument for this tomb being the burial spot of David with many interesting arguments. He says that The City of David was located on the east-ridge of the city, south of the present Temple Mount, (10-11 acres was the size of the City at the time of David) of which no one will argue, that royalty was buried inside the city unlike many in the ancient world who had the beliefs that a dead corpse would contaminate a large population. Shanks cites scripture in his defense of the tomb in that the Kings of Judah (David to Ahaz) were buried within the city of David (1 Kings 2, 11, 14, 15, 22. 2 Kings 9, 12. 2 Chronicles 9, 12) and that Nehemiah states that the Davidic tombs were in the southern part of the city (Neh. 3:16) where these tombs are located but the critics have also voiced their opinions regarding Shanks' theory. The skeptical minimalist camp states that T1-T9 are not tombs and that they do not date to the time of the giant killer. David Ussishkin disagrees that it's David's tombs because of its crudity but confessed to Shanks that some Kings tombs (at Byblos and Tunis) were crude outside but that the burial artifacts were impressive. Kenyon called it (T1) a cistern but said that if it was it used this way it was unusual and she could not explain how it could be used as one. Gabriel Barkay said that T1 was used for wine in the Roman period but didn't know what its earlier use was for. Shanks defends his claims in that little is known about First and Second Temple tombs, that T1 is not characteristic of any tombs found in Israel except those near it (T2-T9) and that not a single tomb that has been found in Jerusalem that can be dated to the time of David and we don't know what a tomb from David's time looked like (Biblical Archaeology Review, January/February 1995, 62-67).

King Solomon and Archaeology

Temple Architecture and the Temple location

1 Solomon gave orders to build a temple for the Name of the LORD and a royal palace for himself - 2 Chronicles 2:1 (http://bible.gospelcom.net/bible)

mmThough the temple of Solomon has yet to be revealed, it is interesting to see how accurate the Bible truly is concerning temple architecture and how it parallels with what we know in scripture. 2 Chronicle 3:15-17 speaks of the free standing columns and vestibule that is similar to what we see in Syrian architecture and 1 Kings 6:36 tells us of the use cedar beams in the inner courtyard that once again is supported by archaeological discoveries in Syria (northern) and Phoenicia. The Phoenicians and Egyptians also employed the use of palm trees, flowers, chains and lighting techniques in their architecture similar to those described in 2 Chronicles 3:5. It is true that Solomon's temple has not been recovered but Architect Leen Ritmeyer believes that it was located at the es-Sakhra rock formation over which the Dome of the Rock is built including Zerubbabel's Temple and Herod's (Bible and Spade, Spring 1994, 64).

"…to the House (Temple) of Yahweh."

mmThe antiquities market has produced some rather interesting finds. A direct link to Solomon's Temple was discovered and Hershel Shanks wrote an article about it in an issue of Biblical Archaeology Review (November/December 1997). One of the artifacts is the famed pomegranate scepter head which will be discussed shortly but of equal note is the temple receipt that reads, "Pursuant to the order of you of Ashyahu the king to give by the hand of Zecharyahu silver of Tarshish to the House (Temple) of Yahweh three shekels." The receipt is owned by London Collector Schlomo Moussaief unfortunately, know one knows where it was discovered, but Shanks believes that someone may know but they are not talking. The ostraca measures 4 inches wide by 3.5 inches tall and has the name Tarshish on it. This may be the Tarshish of 1 Kings 10:22 where gold, silver, apes and ivory were acquired by Solomon and Hiram.

UPDATE > There is speculation about this artifacts authenticity (link, link). As with all web links, conduct your own investigation.

The Pomegranate Scepter Head and Solomon's Temple

mmThe ivory pomegranate scepter head was discovered by French Scholar Andre LeMaire in an antiquities shop in Jerusalem in 1979. The artifact, was dated to the 8th century B.C., was eventually purchased by the Israel Museum in 1988. The inscription reads "For the house of Yahweh, holy to the priests," The house of Yahweh is more than likely referring to the Temple or the "House of the Lord." An additional scepter head was discovered that probably also belonged to the Temple or was used for a horses bridle (Assyrian relief depictions) but there was no inscription on it when it was discovered (Price, 1997, 185 - 186).

Solomon's Father-in-Law

1 Solomon made an alliance with Pharaoh king of Egypt and married his daughter. He brought her to the City of David until he finished building his palace and the temple of the LORD , and the wall around Jerusalem. - 1 Kings 3:1 - 2 Chronicles 2:1 (http://bible.gospelcom.net/bible)

mmAccording to Egyptologist Dr. Charles Aling, the father-in-law of one of Solomon's wives was more that likely the Pharaoh Siamun. 1 Kings 3:1 states that Solomon made an alliance with an Egyptian King which included a treaty in marriage. Aling says that typically Pharaohs would receive daughters of foreign rulers into their harems but this is unique in that Siamun probably considered Solomon an equal and allowed his daughter to join the wealthy King. Kenneth Kitchen states that Siamun was the sixth king of Dynasty Twenty-one and he reigned from 978-959 B.C. Siamun, after conquering Gezer of the Philistines, gave the town to Solomon. Interestingly, a representation was found at the Temple of Amon at Tanis which shows the Aegaean double-axe (Philistine's were more than likely Aegeans) that illustrates Egyptian and Philistine conflict (Aling, 1981, 121).

Hazor, Gezer and Megiddo

15 Here is the account of the forced labor King Solomon conscripted to build the LORD's temple, his own palace, the supporting terraces, the wall of Jerusalem, and Hazor, Megiddo and Gezer. .- 1 Kings 9:15 (http://bible.gospelcom.net/bible)

mmYigael Yadin's excavations of Hazor's massive gate and city wall in the 1950's has come under attack by the critics of the Bible. The critics contend there was no David or Solomon and believe that their reigns should be considered a part of someone's fertile imagination. Fortunately, the Bible also has its defenders. Amnon Ben-Tor has recently continued the work of Yadin and has also come to the conclusion that Hazor was present during the tenth century solidifying the work of Yadin. In a Palace room, the name Hazor was discovered on one of four tablets that were uncovered. Included with this find were multiplication tables, commercial and legal documents. This is the first time that the name Hazor was found outside of the Bible (Bible and Spade, Spring/Summer 1997, 68-70).

mmSolomon's Gezer was first excavated by R.A.S. MacCalister in 1902. This 30 acre mound is 15 miles west of Jerusalem and was the dowry that Solomon's wife was given by her father (Siamun) as chronicled in 1 Kings 9:16, 17 (Blaiklock, 1983, 212). What remains of Gezer includes a destruction layer (field III), a monumental city-gate (1/2 of the gate) and a wall from the time of Solomon that was unearthed by a archaeological team from California in 1994 (Bible and Spade, Winter 1982, 20-21. Schoville, 1978, 359).

mmMegiddo was originally excavated by G. Schumacher in 1903. In the 1960's, Yigael Yadin took stratigraphical soundings at the site in order to clarify the level in which Solomon built one of his royal chariot cities and the stables (Blaiklock 1983, 308-309) but the Yadin theory about the fourth stratum (Solomon level of occupation) was later determined to be from the time of Ahab but is still disputed among scholars (Free, 1992, 143). What remains of Solomon's Megiddo is a monumental city-gate, like Gezers, the piers of a podium (Building 338) that covered rough hewn stones, a court yard (313) (Bible and Spade Spring 1972, 44) and a strikingly similar casemate-wall gateway in all three Solomonic cities (Megiddo, Hazor and Gezer). Unfortunately, much was lost to the destruction of these walls by builders after the time of Solomon or the archaeologists would've found more, perhaps homes, offices and palaces (Millard, 1985, 107) but a subsidiary palace may have been found!

Solomon's Palace at Megiddo?

"Hewed stones; sawed with stones" is the 1 Kings 6:9 passage that may have given the archaeologist more confidence in a pre-1972 discovery at Megiddo. The Palace that was unearthed at Megiddo was discovered in an ancient courtyard that measured 194 feet by 187 feet and was surrounded by a stone wall with a 4-room gateway. The lower level of the palace (75 square feet) contained twelve rooms with an additional courtyard. The similarities between the Jerusalem Palace and the Megiddo structure compels scholars to believe that both dwellings follow the same, basic blue print (Bible and Spade, Summer 1972, 68).

Solomon and the Queen of Sheba

1 When the queen of Sheba heard about the fame of Solomon and his relation to the name of the LORD, she came to test him with hard questions. -
1 Kings 10:1 (http://bible.gospelcom.net/bible)

mmFor years, the story of Solomon and Sheba was considered a myth or a "romantic tale" simply because nothing from her homeland had been discovered and that there was no firm connection between the two nations. In the 1870's, two Europeans (Halevy and Glaser) disguised as Bedouins reached Marib (the capital of Sheba) and were able to make some impressions of some inscriptions in the area before they were forced to flee. These inscriptions proved that the Capital of Sheba did exist. In 1951, Marib was partially excavated. An oval shaped temple, over 300 feet long, was found almost buried in the sand. One of the inscriptions on this temple wall showed that the people of the temple worshipped the god of the moon known as ILumquh. The Temple also contained fountains that flowed into the temple courtyard. Excavations have been hampered by the local administration of Marib at least to the date of this source (Bible and Spade, Summer 1972, 70). mmA clay stamp that was used to seal frankincense and myrrh cargo bags was found at Bethel in 1957. This discovery proves that there was a relationship between the two nations at the time of Solomon and Sheba, is probably the earliest South Arabian object ever found in Palestine and clearly shows a direct contact between the two nations early in the first millennium B.C. (Free 1992, 146).

Sheba's Camels

2 Arriving at Jerusalem with a very great caravan-with camels carrying spices, large quantities of gold, and precious stones-she came to Solomon and talked with him about all that she had on her mind. .- 1 Kings 10:2 (http://bible.gospelcom.net/bible)

mmMany in the past have been skeptical about the verse in 1 Kings 10:1-2 concerning the Queen of Sheba's Camels because it was assumed that Camels weren't domesticated at the time of Solomon. Archaeology has proven this belief wrong in the fact that the camel was domesticated as early 1200 B.C., at least two hundred years before Solomon. It is also known that the camel is represented on the Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser and on a sculptured stone relief discovered at Halaf (Free, 1992, 145).

Trade Routes, Solomon and Sheba

mmIt has been discovered that the biblical trade routes that Solomon and Sheba used have been discovered and verified by noted scholars Nelson Gleuck and Yohanon Aharoni through archaeological surveys. The routes ran from Judah to Southern Arabia to the Negev and were controlled by fortresses between the tenth and seventh centuries B.C. Some of these fortresses have been found at Kadesh Barnea, Tel Arad (east of the Dead Sea), Horvat Uza and Ezion Geber where Solomon harbored his fleet for trade with the South (Bible and Spade, Autumn 1972, 107-109).

The fishpools of Heshbon

4 Your neck is like an ivory tower. Your eyes are the pools of Heshbon by the gate of Bath Rabbim. Your nose is like the tower of Lebanon looking toward Damascus. - Song of Solomon 7:4 (http://bible.gospelcom.net/bible)

mmHeshbon was first excavated in 1968 by Andrews University. Heshbon or Tell Hesban is located 47 miles east of Jerusalem and more than likely contains the ruins of the biblical city within the newer metropolis. A large reservoir was found at Heshbon measuring fifty by forty by fifteen and may be the "fish-pools of Heshbon" mentioned by Solomon in Song of Solomon 7:4 (Blaiklock, 1983, 236. Schoville, 1978, 488).

Solomon's Wealth and its final destination

The discussion of Solomon's wealth was intentionally put off to the last moment because there is simply no concrete archaeological evidence that has been produced to support the claims of his enormous wealth or is there? Could it be possible that archaeologists and other scholars have been looking in the wrong places? It is true that Israel has produced little showing Solomon's wealth, but why look specifically to Israel for this support or why is it such an amazing concept that Kings prior to or after Solomon had exorbitant wealth?

King Solomon's dinners of gold

All King Solomon's goblets were gold, and all the household articles in the Palace of the Forest of Lebanon were pure gold. Nothing was made of silver, because silver was considered of little value in Solomon's days. - 1 Kings 10:21 (http://bible.gospelcom.net/bible)

Sir Leonard Woolley, while excavating at Ur, found uncovered golden cups and dishes dated to 2600 B.C., over 1600 years before Solomon. Other gold dishes have also been recovered from Ugarit and still other objects of interest continue to be sold on the antiquities market. So it is possible that items similarly used in Solomon's Temple could have been produced and used by other Kings in antiquity (Bible and Spade, Spring-Summer-Autumn 1982, 64)

Gold-plated Temples, Personal Wealth and Golden Origins

Solomon covered the inside of the temple with pure gold, and he extended gold chains across the front of the inner sanctuary, which was overlaid with gold. 22 So he overlaid the whole interior with gold. - 1 Kings 10:21 (http://bible.gospelcom.net/bible)

mmGold-plated Temples are another area that scholars should've previously looked into in order to compliment the biblical story of Solomon. A few noteworthy examples would have to be Esarhaddon's Ashur Temple that had gold-plated doors, Neo-Babylon's Nabonidas whose Temple of Sin at Harran had walls of silver and gold, Amenophis III's Temple of Amun (Thebes) that had plated gold throughout its interior with floors that were plated with silver and finally Ramses III's Shrine at Medinet Habu which was paved with silver and had gold door posts (Bible and Spade, Spring-Summer-Autumn 1982, 68-69). Personal wealth, some taken by force and others a show of power, has also been recorded for posterity such as Pythius', a subject of Xerxes of Persia who had 7,000 lbs. of gold, Trajan's capture of gold from the Dacian's (500,000 lbs.) and Anastasius' gold that he left upon his death approximately 320,000 lbs. But one may ask, where did this gold originally come from?
mm It is believed that the main locations for gold exploration and mining would be from Western Turkey, Egypt, Wawat, Nubia and Western Arabia (Sheba). 1 Kings 10:11 speaks of the "Gold of Ophir" but no one knows exactly where Ophir was, though the name Ophie (presumably Ophir) was discovered on an ostracon from Tell Qasile, Israel, it gave no clues to the location (Bible and Spade, Spring-Summer-Autumn 1982, 68-69. Bible and Spade, Autumn 1994, 107).

Solomon's Gold, Ivory and Wood Throne

18 Then the king made a great throne inlaid with ivory and overlaid with fine gold. 19 The throne had six steps, and its back had a rounded top. - 1 Kings 10:18, 19 (http://bible.gospelcom.net/bible)

mmThe Bible states that Solomon had a throne made that was made of ivory and overlaid it with pure gold (1 Kings 10:18). Is this an exaggerated account from the Bible or is it true that ancient Kings had thrones of almost pure gold and ivory? Archaeology has revealed to us, in more than one case, that Kings did not only have thrones made of gold but also weapons, robes and bedsteads made partially of gold. An ivory bedstead and throne was discovered at Salamis and fragments of ivory and have been recovered from Samaria and Assyria. Howard Carter discovered King Tut's tomb chair in his excavation in the 1920's. Tut's chair was plated with pure gold and other chairs that were discovered, had the back and legs covered with gold. Queen Hetepheres' tomb contained a bed, carrying-chair and canopy that had gold covered woodwork (Bible and Spade, Autumn 1994, 100).

Objects of War

mmOther signs of wealth, not limited to chairs or bedsteads, were the decorative objects of war that have been discovered during excavations. Golden items, similar to Solomon's five hundred shields of gold (1 Kings 10: 16, 17), have been discovered. Objects such as golden blades for daggers and a gold axe-head were discovered at Ur, but of more interest to this discussion is the list that Sargon II compiled after his invasion of Musasir (northwest Assyria). Sargon bragged of taking six gold shields (Bible and Spade, Autumn 1994, 102-103).

Where did Solomon's Wealth go?

25 In the fifth year of King Rehoboam, Shishak king of Egypt attacked Jerusalem. 26 He carried off the treasures of the temple of the LORD and the treasures of the royal palace. He took everything, including all the gold shields Solomon had made. - 1 Kings 14: 25, 26 (http://bible.gospelcom.net/bible)

mmIn 1994, an interesting article appeared in Bible and Spade magazine. The author of the article, Kenneth Kitchen, believes that the Shishak invasion into Israel may hold the answer to this puzzling question. When Shishak (Sheshonq) led his campaign against Israel and Judah, after the split of the Northern and Southern kingdoms, he took the riches of Solomon's Temple with him back to Egypt (1 Kings 14: 25, 26). This incursion probably happened around 925 B.C., a year later, Shishak was dead and his son Osorkon I ruled. Less than four years after Solomon's death, Osorkon I dedicated gifts to the god/goddesses of Egypt and this was recorded on a temple pillar in Bubastis, Egypt which is located in the Eastern Nile Delta.
mm Recorded on the Bubastis pillar is a list of riches that he has chose to dedicate to the deities and they include 2,300,000 of deben of gold and silver, 383 tons of precious metals coupled with an inscription that reads, "What his majesty gave to the Temple of Aman-re...a standing statue offering incense...its body of beaten gold and silver, amounting to: gold, 183 deben, silver,19,000 deben,…black copper" "gold, lapis...332,000 deben, total, 594,3000 deben." The question that Kitchen cannot help but ask is how could Osorkon I have acquired so much gold in such a short period of time? Kitchen believes that the gold dedicated to the Egyptian deities may have been part of Solomon's great wealth taken by his father Shishak in 925 B.C. (Bible and Spade, Autumn 1994, 108, 109).
mm As this paper meticulously shows, there is substantial evidence for Saul, David and Solomon. Unfortunately, there will be those that will say that conservative archaeologists are trying to "prove the Bible through archaeology." The Bible can stand on its own merits as a sound theological, and yes, historical document without anyone's assistance. I do fear that those that deny the archaeological evidence for early Israel are putting themselves and their readership outside of science. The very thing they presume people-of-faith do.

Bibliography

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Billington, Clyde., Aling, Charles. Readings in Old Testament Archaeology (video). St. Paul: Northwestern College, 2000.

Biran, Avraham. "David" found at Dan. Washington, D.C. Biblical Archaeology Review, (March/April 1994).

Blaiklock, Edward M. The New International Dictionary of Biblical Archaeology. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan Publishing House, 1983.

Brantley, Garry K. Digging for Answers. Montgomery, Alabama: Apologetics Press. Inc, 1995.

Byers, Gary A. "To Sling or Not to Sling/Ekron." Walkersville, Maryland. Bible and Spade - The Associates for Biblical Research, (Winter 1998).

Free, Joseph P. Archaeology and Bible History. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan Publishing House, 1992.

"High-State Officials under David and Solomon." Ann Arbor, Michigan: Word of Truth Productions/Bible and Spade - The Associates for Biblical Research, (Autumn 1973).

The Illustrated Bible Dictionary (Volume 1). Leicester LE1 7GP, England. Inter-Varsity Press, 1998.

Life Application Bible. Wheaton, Illinois: Tyndale House Publishers Inc. 1993

Millard Alan."Does the Bible exaggerate Solomon's Wealth?" Ephrata, Pennsylvania: Bible and Spade - The Associates for Biblical Research, (Autumn 1994).

Millard Alan. "Solomon in All His Glory." Ballston Spa, New York: Word of Truth Productions/Bible and Spade - The Associates for Biblical Research, (Spring-Summer-Autumn 1982).

Millard, Alan. Treasures from Bible Times. Herts, England: Lion Publishing, 1985.

Mullins, Robert. "Philistines at Beth Shan." Ephrata, Pennsylvania. Archaeology and Biblical Research - The Associates for Biblical Research, (Spring 1992).

"Neurologist says Goliath Dies from bad eyesight." Spring 2000 Archaeology News Digest. http://www.msn.fullfeed.com/~scribe/digest20002.htm.

Price, Randall. The Stones Cry Out. Eugene, Oregon: Harvest House Publishers, 1997.

Ritmeyer, Leen and Kathleen. "Thy Servants Take Pleasure in Her Stones." Ephrata, Pennsylvania: Bible and Spade - The Associates for Biblical Research, (Winter 1997).

Robert Wadlow Pershing: 1918-1940. (http://www.who2.com/robertwadlow.html)/ http://www.altonmuseum.com/robertwadlow.htm: Who2: 2003.

Schoville, Keith N. Biblical Archaeology in Focus. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Baker Book House, 1978.

Shanks, Hershel. "Biblical Minimalists: Face to Face." Washington, D.C. Biblical Archaeology Review, (July/August 1997).

Shanks, Hershel. "Has David been found in Egypt." Washington, D.C. Biblical Archaeology Review, (January/February 1999).

Shanks, Hershel. "Is this King David's Tomb?" Washington, D.C. Biblical Archaeology Review, (January/February 1995).

Shanks, Hershel. "Three Shekel's for the Lord." Washington, D.C. Biblical Archaeology Review, (Novenber/December 1997). Thompson, Henry O. "The Biblical Ammonites." Ballston Spa, New York: Word of Truth Productions/Bible and Spade - The Associates for Biblical Research, (Winter 1982).

Wilson, Clifford. "The Death of King Saul." Burnt Hills, New York: Word of Truth Productions/Bible and Spade - The Associates for Biblical Research, (Winter 1972).

Wilson, Clifford. "Solomon and Israel's Golden Age." Burnt Hills, New York: Word of Truth Productions/Bible and Spade - The Associates for Biblical Research, (Winter 1972).

Wilson, Clifford. "Solomon and Israel's Golden Age" (II). Burnt Hills, New York: Word of Truth Productions/Bible and Spade - The Associates for Biblical Research, (Summer 1972).

Wilson, Clifford. "Solomon and Israel's Golden Age" (III). Burnt Hills, New York: Word of Truth Productions/Bible and Spade - The Associates for Biblical Research, (Autumn 1972).

Wood, Bryant. "Archaeology - Confirming the Truth." Ballston Spa, New York: Word of Truth Productions/Bible and Spade - The Associates for Biblical Research, (Winter 1982).

Wood, Bryant. "Important finds at Hazor." Walkersville, MD: Bible and Spade - The Associates for Biblical Research, (Spring/Summer 1997).

Wood, Bryant. "In Search of Solomon's Temple." Ephrata, Pennsylvania: Bible and Spade - The Associates for Biblical Research, (Spring 1994).

Wood, Bryant. "New light on David's capture of Jerusalem." Burnt Hills, New York: Word of Truth Productions/Bible and Spade - The Associates for Biblical Research, (Autumn 1972).

http://http://bible.gospelcom.net/bible, Gospel Communications International. Muskegon, Michigan: 1995-2003

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Facts and Theories about Neo-Babylon
and the Biblical Daniel

by Rick Dack

mmmOn a dark day in 1933, the body of lecturer R.P. Daugherty was found in a YMCA. What would compel this orator/scholar to take his own life? Did his family life have anything to do with his suicide, or was it his work that pushed this troubled man over the edge? R.P. Daugherty was a strong advocate for the elimination of portions of the book of Daniel, namely the parts concerning the name Belshazzar due to its absence on archaeological documents. He toured vociferously in the United States throughout the 1910's and 1920's, proclaiming that this biblical text was in error. In 1924, a document was discovered that contained both the names Belshazzar and his father Nabonidas. This find stunned the archaeological world and Daugherty was forced to recant his beliefs about Belshazzar. After Daugherty's shame came to light, he wrote a book called Nabonidas and Belshazzar. Daugherty wrote, "Daniel 5 is as accurate as cuneiform literature is accurate and the scripture can be considered compelling because it names Belshazzar." (Billington/Aling 2000, 100-101 ) Shortly after the work was published, Daugherty took his own life. Do current biblical critics proclaim Daniel as inaccurate, and if so, is there a ready defense to be found among learned scholars? Is there any evidence to support the Exile, Nebuchadnezzar, Nabonidas, Belshazzar's banquet, and his demise the night of the Medo-Persian invasion, and what of the invaders Cyrus and Darius? Do the miracles in the Book of Daniel have any historical support, or should they be confined to the mythological section of a library?

Where to start?

mmmThe Neo-Babylonian Empire lasted from approximately 626-539 B.C. The well-known capital city known as Babylon (about 50 miles south of Baghdad) dates back to the times of Hammurabi (ca. 1728-1626 B.C.) (Blaiklock 1983, 337) who brought to prominence the god Marduk and was the founder of the great law code (Roux 1992, 202). A number of years later, it was overrun by the Hittites, Kassites, Elamites and Assyrians. The eleventh and last dynasty (Neo-Babylonian) produced kings who could be divided into two groups, the first group included the forefathers (Nabopolassar, Nebuchadnezzar II and Evil-Merodoch) and the later weak elements (Neriglissar, Labashi-Marduk, Nabonidas and Belshazzar) which brought the Neo-Babylonian curtain down with Belshazzar's death on October 12, 539 B.C. with Darius' entrance into the city (Blaiklock 1983, 337). This city has revealed much to the archaeologist.

mmm The excavations by Koldeway at Babylon (1899-1917) unearthed the remains of a ziggurat, canals, a temple to the God Marduk, as well as the famous Hanging Gardens of Babylon and other nearby structures (palaces and fortifications), but the most impressive and well preserved section of Babylon is the Ishtar Gate and Processional Street that consisted of a center lane, walkways, and red breccia slabs along the sides. The slabs contained the inscription, "Nebuchadnezzar, King of Babylon, Son of Nabopolassar, King of Babylon, am I. The street for the procession of my great lord Marduk I decorated magnificently with stones from the mountains. Marduk, my Lord, give eternal life" (Marzahn 1994, 9). The Ishtar Gate's walls depicted bulls, dragons and lions in blue glazed tiles (Blaiklock 1983, 337), and the Gate itself consisting of two large structures (one in front of the other with half oval openings) can be seen today at the Vorderasiatisches Museum of the Staatliche Museen zu Berlin in a reconstruction.

Daniel Enters Babylon

mmm1 In the third year of the reign of Jehoiakim king of Judah, Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon came to Jerusalem and besieged It [….] 3 Then the king ordered Ashpenaz, chief of his court officials, to bring in some of the Israelites from the royal family and the nobility- 4 young men without any physical defect, handsome, showing aptitude for every kind of learning, well informed, quick to understand, and qualified to serve in the king's palace [….] He was to teach them the language and literature of the Babylonians [….] 6 Among these were some from Judah: Daniel, Hananiah, Mishael and Azariah. 7 The chief official gave them new names: to Daniel, the name Belteshazzar; to Hananiah, Shadrach; to Mishael, Meshach; and to Azariah, Abednego . (http://bible.com/bibles.html).

mmm It is believed that Daniel's expulsion from Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar to Babylon occurred in the year 597 B.C., though some believe it was in the summer of 605 B.C. partly because of his (Nebuchadnezzar's) father's death and his ascension to the throne. This theory is supported by the last two texts of Nabopolassar, which are dated to May and August 605 b.c, and the first texts of Nebuchadnezzar, dated to September and October of 605 b.c. This event was one of three that occurred (605, 597: Ezekial taken and 586 B.C.), but some critics have contended that in the third year of Jehoiachin there was no deportation, but the historian Berosus the Chaldean disagrees (ca. 300 B.C.) because there is evidence of Nabopolassar telling his son (Nebuchadnezzar, the crown prince) to quell the revolts in the west among the Jews and other peoples (Free 1992, 193-194). This episode more than likely involved Jerusalem's siege and Daniel's deportation. Further evidence involves the Babylonian Chronicle which states that all of the Hatti-land was captured (including Palestine and Syria) and recalls his first advance against Jerusalem: "The seventh year, the month of Kislev, the king of Babylonia mustered his forces and marched to Syria (Syria/Palestine). He camped against the city of Judah (Jerusalem) and on the second day of the month of Adar he took the city and captured the king. He appointed the king of his choice there, took its heavy tribute and brought them to Babylon" (Price 1997, 233). During these activities, Nabopolassar (the 8th of Av or August 16, 605 b.c.) and his son Nebuchadnezzar takes the throne in just under a month. (Free 1992, 193).

Daniel and Nebuchadnezzar

mmmIt is obvious that the building projects of Nebuchadnezzar were quite impressive, but what can be learned of the man? It is known that he was great military leader in his campaigns to Carchemish; he followed the fleeing Egyptians to Hamath in Syria, where he conquered "the whole land of Hatti," which included Judah. He took the Jerusalem Temple vessels back for Marduk (Blaiklock 1983, 332-333), assailed Ashkelon due to failure to pay tribute, destroyed Ekron in Philistia, as evidenced by the Ekron Inscription/Temple dedication discovery of Seymour Gittin in 1996 (Price 1997, 226), and he journeyed to Tyre. His boastfulness, as recorded in Daniel 4:30, is probably a direct result of his pride in his capital city of Babylon and his later accomplishments at the city of Ur, which he rebuilt. However, there is no doubt that there was a restlessness within the king and a madness that would grip him during his reign (Blaiklock 1983, 334).

mmmOnce Daniel (Belteshazzar) entered Babylon, he was to serve the court of Nebuchadnezzar along with Hananiah, Mishael and Azariah (to later be named Shadrach, Meshach and Abednego) who were to be trained for three years and then serve the king. The first of many conflicts arose when the royal food and wine was offered to Daniel and the other Israelites during their training, and they refused to consume it because it was considered defiled. The chief official was fearful of punishment by the king if Nebuchanezzar had seen the Israelites malnourished, but Daniel persuaded the chief official to test them for ten days in which they would eat only vegetables and then was told to compare them with those who ate the royal food. When the ten days had passed, Daniel and the others were considered healthier and were provided with vegetables. From then on, they continued with their training in literature, and after three years Daniel, Shadrach, Meshach and Abednego were assigned to the king's court.

Daniel the Interpreter

mmmAfter their introduction to the court of Nebuchadnezzar, the king became deeply troubled and inquired of his astrologers to interpret his recurring dream and its solution. His astrologers were unable to tell the King his dream and were scheduled to die. When Arioch, commander of the king's guard, went to carry out the executions, Daniel inquired of him why the king was so furious and offered such a terrible penalty. Daniel was told and then went to inquire of God after he met with Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego. Daniel was then given the answers to the king's questions, offered the explanation, and everyone was reprieved. Daniel was then given authority over all of the Babylonian province and was placed in charge over the wise men. Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego were also given administrative duties after Daniel requested it of the king. This story may seem like a pleasant account, but is it true? Is there any archaeological evidence for the characters within this story? Before these questions are answered, it is important to cite another biblical instance in which some of these same characters are involved.

The Fiery Furnace

mmmOn the plain of Dura, an image was set up by Nebuchadnezzar. All of the major officials from the capital as well as those from the surrounding provinces, came and were told to bow down to this image of gold at the sound of the instrumentation. If those officials did not bow down to the image that was set up, they would be thrown in to the fiery furnace. Some of the astrologers told the king that the Jews would not bow to the image and, as the biblical story goes, Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego were sent for, refused to bow down and were bound and thrown into the furnace. While in the furnace the three men and the eventual fourth, the one who "looks like a son of the gods" walked around unscathed. Then Nebuchadnezzar approached the opening of the blazing furnace and shouted, "Shadrach, Meshach and Abednego, servants of the Most High God, come out! Come here!" (http://bible.com/bibles.html). The men left the furnace unharmed and were once again promoted in the kingdom.

mmmSome people may ask where was Daniel during this time? Wasn't he the head of the wise men and astrologers and couldn't he have stopped this action by the men under him? Why were the astrologers so anti-Jew? Were they perhaps jealous of the rise of those who were exiled and wanted them eliminated so they could have the chance to achieve greatness in the kingdom? It may have been that Daniel's jurisdictional boundaries were such that he had no power over those who were raising the issue with the king. The text does not indicate why.

mmmDr. William Shea's article "Daniel 3: Extra-Biblical Texts" cites rather interesting evidences concerning the plain of Dura, the loyalty oath, and the participants. He believes that the object of adoration was probably an image of Marduk and not of himself; when people bowed down to the image they pledged their loyalty and allegiance to it and what it represents. Another question has also arisen concerning why the punishment was so strict if it was not adhered to. Shea believes that there were episodes of revolt prior to the drama at the plain of Dura.

mmmThe first piece of evidence he cites is the Chronicle that Nebuchadnezzar published in either 595 or 594 b.c. It says, "In the tenth year the King of Akkad (was) in his own land.. there was a rebellion against Akkad.with arms he slew many of his own army. His own hand captured his army." A contract tablet reveals a revolt in the eleventh year of Nebuchadnezzar in which Nabopolassar receives the property of Baba-ahu-iddina, who was accused of breaking a royalty oath as well as causing an insurrection that brought about his execution. So how do these two theories parallel? It is believed that these writings occurred during the same general time period and are of the same events. Shea believes that the suppression of the revolt that brought on the plain of Dura "insistence of loyalty" was probably during the months of December and January 595/594 B.C. (Shea 1982, 30-33).

mmmThe next issue to discuss is the participants at the plain. Is there any archaeological evidence that would compliment this biblical story? Shea believes that a 5 columned prism, the undated "Istanbul Prism of Nebuchadnezzar," from the general time period of Nebuchadnezzar, may offer the names of biblically related characters as court officials from the time of the oath. These biblical figures, according to the prism, were appointed by the King. The prism's first 3 columns consist of Nebuchadnezzar's telling the gods how much he has done, how much they have contributed, and in the final section he gives a prayer to his God. There is some contention concerning Meschech in Column 3 (line 12), who might be Mussalim- Marduk. However, there is strong evidence for Abed-nego, the Court official in Column 3 (line 15), who is called Ardi-Nabu, secretary of the crown prince. There is also Hananiah in Column 3 (line 18), called Hanunu, chief of the royal merchants (Shea 1982, 37-39, 46-50).

Evil-Merodach

mmmAfter his fathers death in 562 b.c. this son of Nebuchadnezzar ruled for approximately 2 years. He is probably most famous for the release of the political prisoner King Jehoiachin as cited in 2 Kings 25:27-30. This event is acknowledged by two inscriptions that were found in Babylon and the other at Susa. The Babylonian inscription describes the oil, barley and other foods given to him and names him and his five sons as the receivers. Part of this clay artifact reads, "Youkin, king of Judah." The French expedition team inscription find at Susa is contained on a stone vase which reads, "Palace of Amel-Marduk, King of Babylon, son of Nebuchadnezzar, King of Babylon." This vase was probably carried from Babylon to Persia on a Mesopotamian campaign (Free 1992, 199-200). Meroduch met his end at the hands of his brother Neriglisssar (Nergalsharezer of Jeremiah 39:3) who reigned 4 years and then died. Neriglissar's young son, who became the heir, never enjoyed his inheritance because he was deposed 9 months later, tortured and killed because of his wickedness, (Roux 1992, 381) by the priestly party and a member of this same party was elected. His name was Nabonidas.

Nabonidas and Belshazzar

mmmThis Babylonian of the priestly group was a military leader as well as a builder who strengthened fortifications at the Euphrates River. He also rebuilt temples such as the one at Shamash of Sippar and was the discoverer of the foundation record of Naram-Sin. His son, Belshazzar, was his co-ruler during the ten year period that he was at Teima. This ten year stay at Teima was more than likely due to the severe economic and political upheavals of Babylonia. Nabonidas tried to solve his financial problems by securing Southern Arabia trade routes but another problem loomed. The Dead Sea Scroll known as the Prayer of Nabonidas or 4Q242 relates a great difficulty for the king in which he is stricken with a severe inflammation for seven years and is assisted by an exile who is called an exorcist, possibly the biblical Daniel. The exorcist encourages the king to write down the story of his infirmity as well as his healing by God. Nabonidas eventually comes to the realization that there is no God of bronze, iron, wood and stone and acknowledges the true God of Daniel (Wise, 1996, 265-266). The Prayer of Nabonidas, which could be dated to about 400 B.C. , is one of many confirmations of the historical Nabonidas but are there other inscriptions that refer to both Nabonidas and his son Belshazzar?

mmmFive inscriptions have been recovered that refer to these gentlemen, one of whom (Belshazzar), was considered a work of fiction until 1924. The translator of most of these documents was the London Assyriologist Theopholis Pinches who discovered that the first document contained only the name Nabonidas. Document two referred to both Nabonidas and son, the third entry calls Belshazzar the "son of" Nabonidas, and the fourth mentions a loyalty oath which indicated that they were co-rulers (Free 1992, 201). The English Scholar, Sidney Smith, published the fifth inscription which read, "He intrusted the kingship to Belshazzar" (Shea Summer - Autumn 1983, 77).

mmThe night of the Babylonian takeover, Belshazzar threw a drunken banquet for 1,000 of his nobles and their wives. After he requested the goblets from the Jerusalem Temple to be brought in to be used for the gathering, a hand appeared and wrote on the plaster of the wall the words, "Mene Mene Tekel Parsin." This occurrence greatly disturbed Belshazzar, and he called in his astrologers and diviners to translate these words, but they could not. The queen then encouraged the king to call Daniel to interpret, whom his father appointed, because he was the leader of the wise men/astrologers. Daniel was called, he translated the words, and they foretold the king's death and that his kingdom would be given to the Medes and Persians. That very night Darius the Mede entered the city and Belshazzar was slain.

m According to the Associates for Biblical Research publication Bible and Spade (Summer-Autumn 1983), Dr. William Shea has determined that Nitocris, the mother of Belshazzar, was probably the queen who insisted that Belshazzar call on Daniel for the translation of the writing on the wall. His source for such information is from Herodotus' Histories (I. 185-188), which says that she was the last great queen of the Neo-Babylonian Empire.

mmmThe historian Herodotus also gives us an account (1.191) of the Medes and Persian invasion that took Belshazzar's life. He wrote that Darius and Cyrus came in control of the city while "they [Babylonians] were dancing and making merry" by the diverting of the Euphrates. Though some may disagree, this belief is supported by the findings of Koldeway, who states that the Euphrates was at its lowest point during that time of the year and that a water channel was probably used to enter the city. Xenophon also reports the story in his Cyropaedia (7.5.15) in which he wrote that the Persians chose to attack knowing that a certain festival was going to occur "when all Babylon was accustomed to drink and revel all night long" (Yamauchi, 1996, 86-87). During the invasion, Belshazzar was slain, but a firm timeline where this occurred is up for debate.

mmmThe Battle of Opis, the conflict in which Belshazzar may have died, has been stated by Georges Roux as the event that took his life (Roux 1992, 387), but Dr. Edwin Yamauchi disagrees with Roux because the Nabonidas Chronicle states that Cyrus defeated Akkad at the Battle of Opis in September prior to the October 12th date of Darius' move into the city (Yamauchi 1996, 86) unless two battles were within weeks of each other . The one factor that could make this event possible is the distance between Babylon and nearby Opis. To put a final cap on the death of Belshazzar, one needs to look at Xenophon's Cyropaedia 7.5.29-30 in which he states that a King did die in the palace the night of the fall of Babylon, but unfortunately the writer did not mention the Kings name. (Shea Summer - Autumn 1983, 87).

Babylon under New Leadership

mm After the death of Belshazzar, Gubaru (perhaps Darius) entered the city of Babylon on October 12, 539 B.C. not with a roar but a whimper as will be seen. He was soon to be followed by his commander Cyrus. Cyrus the Great, a humane and wise administrator, captured Babylon on Oct. 29, 539 B.C., and his empire would last approximately 200 years until the rise of Alexander the Great around 331 B.C. This military man captured the Medes in the 550's B.C. and overran Lydia in 546 B.C., but what he may be best remembered for is his kindness to the exiles in Babylon. The Cyrus Cylinder, found by Hormuzd Rassam in the nineteenth century, records this generosity in allowing the exiles to return home, including the Jews to Palestine. The Cylinder states, "I also gathered all of their inhabitants and returned to them their habitations. Furthermore, I resettled upon the command of Marduk….all the gods…in their former chapels." Another notable record asks the gods of the people "exiled" to acknowledge his good deed and perhaps the people will refrain from future ill will: "May all the gods of whom I have resettled in their sacred cities ask daily Bel and Nebo for a long life for me and may they recommend me to Marduk" (Free 1992, 203-204).

Gubaru and the Lions Den

mmmDarius the Mede not to be confused with Darius I (Ezra 4:5 and Zech. 1:1) and Darius II (Neh. 12:2), may be the General Gubaru mentioned in the Nabonidas Chronicle who entered Babylon "without a battle" and conquered it for Cyrus on October 12, 539 B.C. (Shea Summer 1991, 69) Dr. Shea believes that Darius may be the throne name of Gubaru (Shea-ETS 1995), and this same general may have committed Daniel to the lion's den. On Column 3 lines 16B-18, the Nabonidas Chronicle states that guards were placed around "all temple sites," shortly after Persian control of the city and that the citizens' local gods were not permitted to go back to their places of worship until the edict was abolished. Why were the gods not permitted to return? The answer may lie in Daniel chapter 6. 6

mmmSo the administrators and the satraps went as a group to the king and said: "O King Darius, live forever! 7 The royal administrators, prefects, satraps, advisers and governors have all agreed that the king should issue an edict and enforce the decree that anyone who prays to any god or man during the next thirty days, except to you, O king, shall be thrown into the lions' den. 8 Now, O king, issue the decree and put it in writing so that it cannot be altered-in accordance with the laws of the Medes and Persians, which cannot be repealed." 9 So King Darius put the decree in writing. (http://bible.com/bibles.html).

mmmThis part of the Chronicle may refer to Darius' decree. The reason why the gods were not permitted to return was that only Darius was to be worshipped; thus, guards were put around the temples to prevent worship (Shea - ETS 1995).

mmmAnother portion of this Chronicle that may be of interest to the biblical researcher is located on Column 3 lines 19 and 20B and will be referred to here. The Bible states that Daniel was one of three administrators that were put over 120 satraps and that he was the most prominent and well regarded. These satraps, as well as the rest of the administrators, tried to find fault with Daniel concerning governing affairs but were unable to find any flaws, so they devised a scheme in which Daniel would be killed. Knowing the egotism of the king, they developed an edict in which the king could only be worshipped. The king signed it, and Daniel was put under surveillance. Knowing full well Daniel's prayer habits, the satraps and other members of government caught him during prayer, brought him to the king and Darius, who was unable to rescind his edict and had no choice but to throw his friend into the den. The following morning, the king cried out to Daniel who was still amongst the lions. Daniel replied that he was safe due to the protection of an angel whom his God had sent. Angrily, the King threw the accusers and their families into the den, where they were instantly devoured. So how does this relate to the last portion of Daniel 6?

mmmShea believes that lines 19 and 20B speak of Gubaru or Ugbaru making the first appointments to his administration and that the Governor of Gubaru or Ugbaru made the second appointments. Why make two appointments? Presumably, something happened to the first administration (Shea - ETS 1995).

The Black Basalt Lion of Babylon

mmm25 Then King Darius wrote to all the peoples, nations and men of every language throughout the land: "May you prosper greatly! 26 "I issue a decree that in every part of my kingdom people must fear and reverence the God of Daniel. "For he is the living God and he endures forever; his kingdom will not be destroyed, his dominion will never end. 27 He rescues and he saves; he performs signs and wonders in the heavens and on the earth. He has rescued Daniel from the power of the lions." 28 So Daniel prospered during the reign of Darius and the reign of Cyrus [1] the Persian. (Daniel chapter 6, http://bible.com/bibles.html).

mmmIn 1776, a black basalt Lion of Babylon statue was discovered by some local villagers in a museum area of Babylon to which Nebuchadnezzar and other kings had contributed throughout their reigns. This 9 foot long beast is not characteristic of Babylonian design but is perhaps Persian (stone, style by sculptor, subject matter). The lion depicted is standing over a man, looking straight forward, and it is not devouring its victim (unlike Nubian depictions of attack). The statue's lower jaw was not finished or was chipped away, and the mane and back contained an inscription (probably cuneiform) that was destroyed. But who would intentionally deface this sculpture? Dr. Shea believes that this lion may have been set up by Gubaru (Darius) to commemorate the event of Daniel's escape and was later disfigured by the enemies and remaining members of the administrators' families who set out to destroy the historical record. (Shea Summer 1991, 71-75).

mmmIt is safe to say that the Book of Daniel is a strong example of Neo-Babylonian history. Though archaeology has uncovered some evidence there is much that we don't know owing to either political or economic restraints and it is certain that the biblical critic will continue his attacks. Fortunately, individuals like Daugherty will also arrive on the scene and retract their beliefs for the benefit of science and faith when archaeology provides evidence. I just pray that those skeptics will have the strength to confess their errors and not repeat Daugherty's terrible end.

Bibliography

Billington, Clyde., Aling, Charles. Readings in Old Testament Archaeology (video). St. Paul: Northwestern College, 2000.

Blaicklock, Edward M. The New International Dictionary of Biblical Archaeology. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan Publishing House, 1983.

Free, Joseph P. Archaeology and Bible History. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan Publishing House, 1992.

Marzahn, Joachim. The Ishtar Gate. Berlin, Germany: Staatliche Museen zu Berlin - Preufisher Kulterbesitz, 1994.

Price, Randall. The Stones Cry Out. Eugene, Oregon: Harvest House Publishers, 1997.

Roux, Georges. Ancient Iraq. London, England: Penguin Books, 1980.

Shea , William H. Daniel 3: Extra-Biblical Texts and the Convocation on the Plain of Dura. Berrien Springs/Dexter, Michigan: Thomas-Shore Inc., The Journal of the Seventh Day Adventist Theological Seminary -Vol. 20- Number 1- (Spring 1982) : 30-33, 37-39, 46-50.

Shea, William, H. Nabonidas, Belshazzar and the Book of Daniel: An Update. Ballston Spa, New York: Word of Truth Productions/Bible and Spade - The Associates for Biblical Research, (Summer- Autumn 1983): 77, 87.

Shea, William, H. Daniel and the Lions Den. Ephrata, Pennsylvania: The Associates for Biblical Research - Archaeology and Biblical Research, (Summer 1991): 69, 71-75.

Shea, William, H. New Readings for the Nabonidas Chronicle and their Implications for the Identification of Darius the Mede (cassette tape). Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Evangelical Theological Society (ATS), 1995.

Wise, Michael O., Abegg, Martin G., Cook, Edward M. The Dead Sea Scrolls: A New Translation. San Francisco, California: HarperCollins, 1996.

Yamauchi, Edwin M. Persia and the Bible. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Baker Book House Co., 1996.

http://bible.com/bibles.html, Christ Unlimited Ministries. Dewey, AZ: 2001.

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